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APA Citation Style

Citation examples.

• Paper Format
• Style and Grammar Guidelines
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• What's New in the 7th Edition?
• APA Style References Guidelines from the American Psychological Association
• APA Style (OWL - Online Writing Lab, Purdue University)
• Common Reference Examples Handout
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Edited Book Chapter
• Dictionary Entry
• Government Report
• YouTube Video
• Facebook Post
• Webpage on a Website
• Supplemental Reference Examples
• Archival Documents and Collections

Parenthetical citations:  (Grady et al., 2019; Jerrentrup et al., 2018)

Narrative citations:  Grady et al. (2019) and Jerrentrup et al. (2018)

• If a journal article has a DOI, include the DOI in the reference.
• If the journal article does not have a DOI and is from an academic research database, end the reference after the page range (for an explanation of why, see the  database information  page). The reference in this case is the same as for a print journal article.
• Do not include database information in the reference unless the journal article comes from a database that publishes original, proprietary content, such as UpToDate (see an example on the  database information  page).
• If the journal article does not have a DOI but does have a URL that will resolve for readers (e.g., it is from an online journal that is not part of a database), include the URL of the article at the end of the reference.
• If the journal article has an article number instead of a page range, include the article number instead of the page range (as shown in the Jerrentrup et al. example).

Parenthetical citations:  (Rabinowitz, 2019; Sapolsky, 2017)

Narrative citations:  Rabinowitz (2019) and Sapolsky (2017)

• If the book includes a DOI, include the DOI in the reference after the publisher name.
• Do not include the publisher location.
• If the book does not have a DOI and comes from an academic research database, end the book reference after the publisher name. Do not include  database information  in the reference. The reference in this case is the same as for a print book.

Parenthetical citations:  (Schaefer & Shapiro, 2019; Schulman, 2019)

Narrative citations:  Schaefer and Shapiro (2019) and Schulman (2019)

• If a magazine article has a DOI, include the DOI in the reference.
• If the magazine article does not have a DOI and is from an academic research database, end the reference after the page range. Do not include  database information  in the reference. The reference in this case is the same as for a print magazine article.
• If the magazine article does not have a DOI but does have a URL that will resolve for readers (e.g., it is from an online magazine that is not part of a database), include the URL of the article at the end of the reference.
• If the magazine article does not have volume, issue, and/or page numbers (e.g., because it is from an online magazine), omit the missing elements from the reference (as in the Schulman example).

Parenthetical citation:  (Carey, 2019)

Narrative citation:  Carey (2019)

• If the newspaper article is from an academic research database, end the reference after the page range. Do not include  database information  in the reference. The reference in this case is the same as for a print newspaper article.
• If the newspaper article has a URL that will resolve for readers (e.g., it is from an online newspaper), include the URL of the article at the end of the reference.
• If the newspaper article does not have volume, issue, and/or page numbers (e.g., because it is from an online newspaper), omit the missing elements from the reference, as shown in the example.
• If the article is from a news website (e.g., CNN, HuffPost)—one that does not have an associated daily or weekly newspaper—use the format for a  webpage on a website  instead.

Parenthetical citation:  (Aron et al., 2019)

Narrative citation:  Aron et al. (2019)

• If the edited book chapter includes a DOI, include the chapter DOI in the reference after the publisher name.
• If the edited book chapter does not have a DOI and comes from an academic research database, end the edited book chapter reference after the publisher name. Do not include  database information  in the reference. The reference in this case is the same as for a print edited book chapter.
• Do not create references for chapters of authored books. Instead, write a reference for the whole book and cite the chapter in the text if desired (e.g., Kumar, 2017, Chapter 2).

Parenthetical citation:  (Merriam-Webster, n.d.)

Narrative citation:  Merriam-Webster (n.d.)

• Because entries in  Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary  are updated over time and are not archived, include a  retrieval date  in the reference.
• Merriam-Webster is both the author and the publisher, so the name appears in the author element only to avoid repetition.
• To quote a dictionary definition, view the pages on quotations and  how to quote works without page numbers  for guidance. Additionally, here is an example:  Culture  refers to the “customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group” (Merriam-Webster, n.d., Definition 1a).

Parenthetical citation:  (National Cancer Institute, 2019)

Narrative citation:  National Cancer Institute (2019)

The specific agency responsible for the report appears as the author. The names of parent agencies not present in the  group author name  appear in the source element as the publisher. This creates concise in-text citations and complete reference list entries.

Parenthetical citation:  (Harvard University, 2019)

Narrative citation:  Harvard University (2019)

• Use the name of the account that uploaded the video as the author.
• If the account did not actually create the work, explain this in the text if it is important for readers to know. However, if that would mean citing a source that appears unauthoritative, you might also look for the author’s YouTube channel, official website, or other social media to see whether the same video is available elsewhere.

Parenthetical citations:  (APA Databases, 2019; Gates, 2019)

Narrative citations:  APA Databases (2019) and Gates (2019)

• Present the name of the individual or group author the same as you would for any other reference. Then provide the Twitter handle (beginning with the @ sign) in square brackets, followed by a period.
• Provide the first 20 words of the tweet as the title. Count a URL, a hashtag, or an emoji as one word each, and include them in the reference if they fall within the first 20 words.
• If the tweet includes an image, a video, a poll, or a thumbnail image with a link, indicate that in brackets after the title: [Image attached], [Video attached], [Thumbnail with link attached].
• The same format used for Twitter is also used for Instagram.  

Parenthetical citation:  (News From Science, 2019)

Narrative citation:  News From Science (2019)

• Provide the first 20 words of the Facebook post as the title. Count a URL or other link, a hashtag, or an emoji as one word each, and include them in the reference if they fall within the first 20 words. 
• If a status update includes images, videos, thumbnail links to outside sources, or content from another Facebook post (such as when sharing a link), indicate that in square brackets.

Parenthetical citations:  (Fagan, 2019; National Institute of Mental Health, 2018; Woodyatt, 2019; World Health Organization, 2018)

Narrative citations:  Fagan (2019), National Institute of Mental Health (2018), Woodyatt (2019), and World Health Organization (2018)

• Provide as specific a  date  as is available on the webpage. This might be a year only; a year and month; or a year, month, and day.
• Italicize the title of a webpage.
• When the author of the webpage and the publisher of the website are the same, omit the publisher name to avoid repetition (as in the World Health Organization example).
• When contents of a page are meant to be updated over time but are not archived, include a  retrieval date  in the reference (as in the Fagan example).
• Use the webpage on a website format for articles from news websites such as CNN and HuffPost (these sites do not have associated daily or weekly newspapers). Use the  newspaper article category  for articles from newspaper websites such as  The New York Times  or  The Washington Post .
• Create a reference to an open educational resources (OER) page only when the materials are available for download directly (i.e., the materials are on the page and/or can be downloaded as PDFs or other files). If you are directed to another website, create a reference to the specific webpage on that website where the materials can be retrieved. Use this format for material in any OER repository, such as OER Commons, OASIS, or MERLOT.
• Do not create a reference or in-text citation for a whole website. To mention a website in general, and not any particular information on that site, provide the name of the website in the text and include the URL in parentheses. For example, you might mention that you used a website to create a survey.

The following supplemental example references are mention in the  Publication Manual:

• retracted journal or magazine article
• edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
• edition of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD)
• religious work
• annotated religious work

Archival document and collections are not presented in the  APA Publication Manual, Seventh Edition . This content is available only on the APA Style website .  This guidance has been expanded from the 6th edition.

Archival sources include letters, unpublished manuscripts, limited-circulation brochures and pamphlets, in-house institutional and corporate documents, clippings, and other documents, as well as such nontextual materials as photographs and apparatus, that are in the personal possession of an author, form part of an institutional collection, or are stored in an archive such as the Archives of the History of American Psychology at the University of Akron or the APA Archives. For any documents like these that are available on the open web or via a database (subscription or nonsubscription), follow the reference templates shown in Chapter 10 of the Publication Manual.

The general format for the reference for an archival work includes the author, date, title, and source. The reference examples shown on this page may be modified for collections requiring more or less specific information to locate materials, for different types of collections, or for additional descriptive information (e.g., a translation of a letter). Authors may choose to list correspondence from their own personal collections, but correspondence from other private collections should be listed only with the permission of the collector.

Keep in mind the following principles when creating references to archival documents and collections:

• As with any reference, the purpose is to direct readers to the source, despite the fact that only a single copy of the document may be available and readers may have some difficulty actually seeing a copy.
• Include as much information as is needed to help locate the item with reasonable ease within the repository. For items from collections with detailed finding aids, the name of the collection may be sufficient; for items from collections without finding aids, more information (e.g., call number, box number, file name or number) may be necessary to help locate the item.
• If several letters are cited from the same collection, list the collection as a reference and provide specific identifying information (author, recipient, and date) for each letter in the in-text citations (see Example 3).
• Use square brackets to indicate information that does not appear on the document.
• Use “ca.” (circa) to indicate an estimated date (see Example 5).
• Use italics for titles of archival documents and collections; if the work does not have a title, provide a description in square brackets without italics.
• Separate elements of the source (e.g., the name of a repository, library, university or archive, and the location of the university or archive) with commas. End the source with a period.
• If a publication of limited circulation is available in libraries, the reference may be formatted as usual for published material, without the archival source.
• Note that private letters (vs. those in an archive or repository) are considered personal communications and cited in the text only.

1. Letter from a repository

Frank, L. K. (1935, February 4). [Letter to Robert M. Ogden]. Rockefeller Archive Center (GEB Series 1.3, Box 371, Folder 3877), Tarrytown, NY, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (Frank, 1935)
• Narrative citation: Frank (1935)
• Because the letter does not have a title, provide a description in square brackets.

2. Letter from a private collection

Zacharius, G. P. (1953, August 15). [Letter to William Rickel (W. Rickel, Trans.)]. Copy in possession of Hendrika Vande Kemp.

• Parenthetical citation: (Zacharius, 1953)
• Narrative citation: Zacharius (1953)
• In this example, Hendrika Vande Kemp is either the author of the paper or the author of the paper has received permission from Hendrika Vande Kemp to cite a letter in Vande Kemp’s private collection in this way. Otherwise, cite a private letter as a  personal communication .

3. Collection of letters from an archive

Allport, G. W. (1930–1967). Correspondence. Gordon W. Allport Papers (HUG 4118.10), Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, MA, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (Allport, 1930–1967)
• Narrative citation: Allport (1930–1967)

To cite specific letters in the text, provide the author and range of years as shown in the reference list entry, plus details about who wrote the specific letter to whom and when the specific letter was written.

• Parenthetical citation: (Allport, 1930–1967, G. Boring to Allport, December 26, 1937)
• Narrative citation: Allport (1930–1967, Allport to G. Boring, March 1, 1939)
• Use the parenthetical citation format to cite a letter that E. G. Boring wrote to Allport because Allport is the author in the reference. Use either the parenthetical or narrative citation format to cite letters that Allport wrote.

4. Unpublished papers, lectures from an archive or personal collection

Berliner, A. (1959). Notes for a lecture on reminiscences of Wundt and Leipzig. Anna Berliner Memoirs (Box M50), Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, OH, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (Berliner, 1959)
• Narrative citation: Berliner (1959)

5. Archival/historical source for which the author and/or date is known or is reasonably certain but not stated on the document

Allport, A. (presumed). (ca. 1937). Marion Taylor today—by the biographer [Unpublished manuscript]. Marion Taylor Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, MA, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (Allport, ca. 1937)
• Narrative citation: Allport (ca. 1937)
• Because the author is reasonably certain but not stated on the document, place the word “presumed” in parentheses after the name, followed by a period.
• Because the date is reasonably certain but not stated on the document, the abbreviation “ca.” (which stands for “circa”) appears before the year in parentheses.

6. Archival source with group author

Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene Personnel in School Programs. (1949, November 5–6). Meeting of Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene Personnel in School Programs. David Shakow Papers (M1360), Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, OH, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene Personnel in School Programs, 1949)
• Narrative citation: Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene Personnel in School Programs (1949)

7. Interview recorded and available in an archive

Smith, M. B. (1989, August 12). Interview by C. A. Kiesler [Tape recording]. President’s Oral History Project, American Psychological Association, APA Archives, Washington, DC, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (Smith, 1989)
• Narrative citation: Smith (1989)
• For interviews and oral histories recorded in an archive, list the interviewee as the author. Include the interviewer’s name in the description.

8. Transcription of a recorded interview, no recording available

Sparkman, C. F. (1973). An oral history with Dr. Colley F. Sparkman/Interviewer: Orley B. Caudill. Mississippi Oral History Program (Vol. 289), University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (Sparkman, 1973)
• Narrative citation: Sparkman (1973)

9. Newspaper article clipping, historical, in personal collection

Psychoanalysis institute to open. (1948, September 18). [Clipping from an unidentified Dayton, OH, United States, newspaper]. Copy in possession of author.

• Parenthetical citation: (“Psychoanalysis Institute to Open,” 1948)
• Narrative citation: “Psychoanalysis Institute to Open” (1948)
• Use this format only if you are the person who is in possession of the newspaper clipping.

10. Historical publication of limited circulation

Sci-Art Publishers. (1935). Sci-Art publications [Brochure]. Roback Papers (HUGFP 104.50, Box 2, Folder “Miscellaneous Psychological Materials”), Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, MA, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (Sci-Art Publishers, 1935)
• Narrative citation: Sci-Art Publishers (1935)

11. Archived photographs, no author and no title

[Photographs of Robert M. Yerkes]. (ca. 1917–1954). Robert Mearns Yerkes Papers (Box 137, Folder 2292), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: ([Photographs of Robert M. Yerkes], ca. 1917–1954)
• Narrative citation: [Photographs of Robert M. Yerkes] (ca. 1917–1954)
• Because the archived photographs do not have a title, provide a bracketed description instead.
• Because the archived photographs do not have an author, move the bracketed description to the author position of the reference.

12. Microfilm

U.S. Census Bureau. (1880). 1880 U.S. census: Defective, dependent, and delinquent classes schedule: Virginia [Microfilm]. NARA Microfilm Publication T1132 (Rolls 33–34), National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC, United States.

• Parenthetical citation: (U.S. Census Bureau, 1880)
• Narrative citation: U.S. Census Bureau (1880)

Read the full APA guidelines on citing ChatGPT 

OpenAI. (2023).  ChatGPT  (Mar 14 version) [Large language model].  https://chat.openai.com/chat

• Parenthetical citation:  (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation:  OpenAI (2023)

Author:  The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date:  The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title:  The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text  is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source:  When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is  https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

What to include and what to exclude

Works included in a reference list.

The reference list provides a reliable way for readers to identify and locate the works cited in a paper. APA Style papers generally include reference lists, not  bibliographies.

In general, each work cited in the text must appear in the reference list, and each work in the reference list must be cited in the text. Check your work carefully before submitting your manuscript or course assignment to ensure no works cited in the text are missing from the reference list and vice versa, with only the following exceptions.

Works Excluded From a Reference List

There are a few kinds of works that are not included in a reference list. Usually a work is not included because readers cannot recover it or because the mention is so broad that readers do not need a reference list entry to understand the use.

Information on works included in a reference list is covered in Sections 2.12 and 8.4 of the  APA Publication Manual, Seventh Edition

*This guidance has been expanded from the 6th edition.*

• Personal communications  such as emails, phone calls, or text messages are cited in the text only, not in the reference list, because readers cannot retrieve personal communications.
• General mentions of whole websites, whole periodicals, and common software and apps in the text do not require in-text citations or reference list entries because the use is broad and the source is familiar.
• The source of an epigraph does not usually appear in the reference list unless the work is a scholarly book or journal. For example, if you open the paper with an inspirational quotation by a famous person, the source of the quotation does not appear in the reference list because the quotation is meant to set the stage for the work, not substantiate a key point.   
• Quotations from research participants in a study you conducted can be presented and discussed in the text but do not need citations or reference list entries. Citations and reference list entries are not necessary because the quotations are part of your original research. They could also compromise participants’ confidentiality, which is an ethical violation.
• References included in a meta-analysis, which are marked with an asterisk in the reference list, may be cited in the text (or not) at the author’s discretion. This exception is relevant only to authors who are conducting a meta-analysis.

DOIs and URLs

The DOI or URL is the final component of a reference list entry. Because so much scholarship is available and/or retrieved online, most reference list entries end with either a DOI or a URL.

• A DOI is a unique alphanumeric string that identifies content and provides a persistent link to its location on the internet. DOIs can be found in database records and the reference lists of published works.
• A URL specifies the location of digital information on the internet and can be found in the address bar of your internet browser. URLs in references should link directly to the cited work when possible.

Follow these guidelines for including DOIs and URLs in references:

• Include a DOI for all works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version.
• If a print work does not have a DOI, do not include any DOI or URL in the reference.
• If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI.
• For works without DOIs from websites (not including academic research databases), provide a URL in the reference (as long as the URL will work for readers).
• For works without DOIs from most  academic research databases , do not include a URL or database information in the reference because these works are widely available. The reference should be the same as the reference for a print version of the work.
• For works from databases that publish original, proprietary material available only in that database (such as the UpToDate database) or for works of limited circulation in databases (such as monographs in the ERIC database), include the name of the database or archive and the URL of the work. If the URL requires a login or is session-specific (meaning it will not resolve for readers), provide the URL of the database or archive home page or login page instead of the URL for the work. See the page on including  database information in references  for more information. 
• If the URL is no longer working or no longer provides readers access to the content you intend to cite, follow the guidance for works with  no source .
• Other alphanumeric identifiers such as the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) and the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) are not included in APA Style references.

Follow these guidelines to format DOIs and URLs:

• Present both DOIs and URLs as hyperlinks (i.e., beginning with “http:” or “https:”).
• Because a hyperlink leads readers directly to the content, it is not necessary to include the words “Retrieved from” or “Accessed from” before a DOI or URL.
• It is acceptable to use either the default display settings for hyperlinks in your word-processing program (e.g., usually blue font, underlined) or plain text that is not underlined.
• Leave links live if the work is to be published or read online.
• Follow the current recommendations of the International DOI Foundation to format DOIs in the reference list, which as of this publication is as follows:

https://doi.org/ xxxxx

• The string “https://doi.org/” is a way of presenting a DOI as a link, and “xxxxx” refers to the DOI number.
• The preferred format of the DOI has changed over time. Although older works use previous formats (e.g., “http:/dx.doi.org/” or “doi:” or “DOI:” before the DOI number), in your reference list, standardize DOIs into the current preferred format for all entries. For example, use  https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040251  in your reference even though that article, published in 2016, presented the number in an older format.
• Copy and paste the DOI or URL from your web browser directly into your reference list to avoid transcription errors. Do not change the capitalization or punctuation of the DOI or URL. Do not add line breaks manually to the hyperlink; it is acceptable if your word-processing program automatically adds a break or moves the hyperlink to its own line.
• Do not add a period after the DOI or URL because this may interfere with link functionality.

When a DOI or URL is long or complex, you may use shortDOIs or shortened URLs if desired.

• Use the  shortDOI service  provided by the International DOI Foundation to create shortDOIs. A work can have only one DOI and only one shortDOI; the shortDOI service will either produce a new shortDOI for a work that has never had one or retrieve an existing shortDOI.
• Some websites provide their own branded shortened URLs, and independent URL shortening services are available as well. Any shortened URL is acceptable in a reference as long as you check the link to ensure that it takes you to the correct location.
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A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

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A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

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Home » References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

References in Research

Definition:

References in research are a list of sources that a researcher has consulted or cited while conducting their study. They are an essential component of any academic work, including research papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications.

Types of References

There are several types of references used in research, and the type of reference depends on the source of information being cited. The most common types of references include:

References to books typically include the author’s name, title of the book, publisher, publication date, and place of publication.

Example: Smith, J. (2018). The Art of Writing. Penguin Books.

Journal Articles

References to journal articles usually include the author’s name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date.

Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 87-94.

Web sources

References to web sources should include the author or organization responsible for the content, the title of the page, the URL, and the date accessed.

Example: World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public

Conference Proceedings

References to conference proceedings should include the author’s name, title of the paper, name of the conference, location of the conference, date of the conference, and page numbers.

Example: Chen, S., & Li, J. (2019). The Future of AI in Education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Technology, Beijing, China, July 15-17, pp. 67-78.

References to reports typically include the author or organization responsible for the report, title of the report, publication date, and publisher.

Example: United Nations. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations.

Formats of References

Some common Formates of References with their examples are as follows:

APA (American Psychological Association) Style

The APA (American Psychological Association) Style has specific guidelines for formatting references used in academic papers, articles, and books. Here are the different reference formats in APA style with examples:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Smith, J. K. (2005). The psychology of social interaction. Wiley-Blackwell.

Journal Article

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Brown, L. M., Keating, J. G., & Jones, S. M. (2012). The role of social support in coping with stress among African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 218-233.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication or last update). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, December 11). COVID-19: How to protect yourself and others. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

Magazine article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. (2019, March 11). The power of positive thinking. Psychology Today, 52(3), 60-65.

Newspaper article:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, page numbers.

Example: Johnson, B. (2021, February 15). New study shows benefits of exercise on mental health. The New York Times, A8.

Edited book

Editor, E. E. (Ed.). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Thompson, J. P. (Ed.). (2014). Social work in the 21st century. Sage Publications.

Chapter in an edited book:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page numbers). Publisher.

Example : Johnson, K. S. (2018). The future of social work: Challenges and opportunities. In J. P. Thompson (Ed.), Social work in the 21st century (pp. 105-118). Sage Publications.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style

The MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the humanities. Here are the different reference formats in MLA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Smith, John. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Journal article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., et al. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 22, no. 1, 2012, pp. 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Publication date, URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC, 11 Dec. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, Mar. 2019, pp. 60-65.

Newspaper article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, 15 Feb. 2021, p. A8.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Thompson, John P., editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Chapter in an edited book

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last name, Publisher, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, Sage Publications, 2014, pp. 105-118.

Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers, dissertations, and books in the humanities and social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Chicago style:

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Publication year): page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. Publication date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Sage Publications, 2014.

Harvard Style

The Harvard Style, also known as the Author-Date System, is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Harvard Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2005. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number (issue number): page numbers.

Example: Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. 2012. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22 (1): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL. Accessed date.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, month and date of publication.

Example : Smith, Mary. 2019. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, month and date of publication.

Example : Johnson, Bob. 2021. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. 2014. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. 2014. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Vancouver Style

The Vancouver Style, also known as the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, is a widely used style for writing academic papers in the biomedical sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Vancouver Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title. Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Example : Brown LM, Keating JG, Jones SM. The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 2012;22(1):218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name [Internet]. Publication date. [cited date]. Available from: URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others [Internet]. 2020 Dec 11. [cited 2023 Apr 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Magazine. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Smith M. The Power of Positive Thinking. Psychology Today. 2019 Mar 1:32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Johnson B. New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health. The New York Times. 2021 Feb 15:A4.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Chapter. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. page numbers.

Example : Johnson KS. The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities. In: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014. p. 105-118.

Turabian Style

Turabian style is a variation of the Chicago style used in academic writing, particularly in the fields of history and humanities. Here are the different reference formats in Turabian style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Year of publication): page numbers.

Example : Brown, LM, Keating, JG, Jones, SM. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” J Res Adolesc 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Publication date. Accessed date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Month Day, Year of publication, page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 1, 2019, 32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Month Day, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, B. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Thompson, JP, ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s Last name, First name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, KS. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by Thompson, JP, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. Here are the different reference formats in IEEE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Oppenheim, A. V., & Schafer, R. W. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Abbreviated Journal Title, vol. number, no. issue number, pp. page numbers, Month year of publication.

Example: Shannon, C. E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 379-423, July 1948.

Conference paper

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Paper.” In Title of Conference Proceedings, Place of Conference, Date of Conference, pp. page numbers, Year of publication.

Example: Gupta, S., & Kumar, P. “An Improved System of Linear Discriminant Analysis for Face Recognition.” In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology, Harbin, China, Dec. 2011, pp. 144-147.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Date of publication or last update. Accessed date. URL.

Example : National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Apollo 11.” NASA. July 20, 1969. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.

Technical report

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Report.” Name of Institution or Organization, Report number, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, J. R. “Development of a New Solar Panel Technology.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-51645, 2011.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Patent.” Patent number, Issue date.

Example : Suzuki, H. “Method of Producing Carbon Nanotubes.” US Patent 7,151,019, December 19, 2006.

Standard Title. Standard number, Publication date.

Example : IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. IEEE Std 754-2008, August 29, 2008

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) style is commonly used in chemistry and related fields. Here are the different reference formats in ACS style:

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title Year, Volume, Page Numbers.

Example : Wang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Cui, Y.; Ma, Y. Facile Preparation of Fe3O4/graphene Composites Using a Hydrothermal Method for High-Performance Lithium Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 4, 2715-2721.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication.

Example : Carey, F. A. Organic Chemistry; McGraw-Hill: New York, 2008.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In Book Title; Editor’s Last name, First name, Ed.; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume number, Chapter number, Page Numbers.

Example : Grossman, R. B. Analytical Chemistry of Aerosols. In Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications; Baron, P. A.; Willeke, K., Eds.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 2001; Chapter 10, pp 395-424.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name, URL (accessed date).

Example : National Institute of Standards and Technology. Atomic Spectra Database. https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database (accessed April 1, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Patent Number. Patent Date.

Example : Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Chen, H.; Zhang, W. US Patent 9,999,999, December 31, 2022.

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. In Title of Conference Proceedings, Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume Number, Page Numbers.

Example : Jia, H.; Xu, S.; Wu, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tang, Y.; Huang, X. Fast Adsorption of Organic Pollutants by Graphene Oxide. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017; Volume 1, pp 223-228.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) style is commonly used in medical and scientific fields. Here are the different reference formats in AMA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Article Title. Journal Abbreviation. Year; Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example : Jones, R. A.; Smith, B. C. The Role of Vitamin D in Maintaining Bone Health. JAMA. 2019;321(17):1765-1773.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Guyton, A. C.; Hall, J. E. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: Page Numbers.

Example: Rajakumar, K. Vitamin D and Bone Health. In: Holick, M. F., ed. Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2010:211-222.

Author’s Last name, First name. Webpage Title. Website Name. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.

Example : National Cancer Institute. Breast Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)–Patient Version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq. Published October 11, 2022. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Conference presentation title. In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Place of Conference.

Example : Smith, J. R. Vitamin D and Bone Health: A Meta-Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research; September 20-23, 2022; San Diego, CA.

Thesis or dissertation

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. Degree level [Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis]. University Name; Year.

Example : Wilson, S. A. The Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women [Doctoral dissertation]. University of California, Los Angeles; 2018.

ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) Style

The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) style is commonly used in civil engineering fields. Here are the different reference formats in ASCE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number (year): page numbers. DOI or URL (if available).

Example : Smith, J. R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol. 146, no. 3 (2020): 04020010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001668.

Example : McCuen, R. H. Hydrologic Analysis and Design. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education; 2013.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example : Maidment, D. R. “Floodplain Management in the United States.” In: Shroder, J. F., ed. Treatise on Geomorphology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2013: 447-460.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example: Smith, J. R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019: 156-163.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. “Hurricane Sandy Coastal Risk Reduction Program, New York and New Jersey.” Report No. P-15-001. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; 2015.

CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

The CSE (Council of Science Editors) style is commonly used in the scientific and medical fields. Here are the different reference formats in CSE style:

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Year;Volume(Issue):Page numbers.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2020;146(3):04020010.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial., ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year:Page numbers.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Bluebook Style

The Bluebook style is commonly used in the legal field for citing legal documents and sources. Here are the different reference formats in Bluebook style:

Case citation

Case name, volume source page (Court year).

Example : Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

Statute citation

Name of Act, volume source § section number (year).

Example : Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7401 (1963).

Regulation citation

Name of regulation, volume source § section number (year).

Example: Clean Air Act, 40 C.F.R. § 52.01 (2019).

Book citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number (if applicable). Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example: Smith, J.R. Legal Writing and Analysis. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Aspen Publishers; 2015.

Journal article citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Volume number (year): first page-last page.

Example: Garcia, C. “The Right to Counsel: An International Comparison.” International Journal of Legal Information. 43 (2015): 63-94.

Website citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed month day, year).

Example : United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Oxford Style

The Oxford style, also known as the Oxford referencing system or the documentary-note citation system, is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, history, and philosophy. Here are the different reference formats in Oxford style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The Art of Writing. New York: Penguin, 2020.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue (year): page range.

Example: Garcia, Carlos. “The Role of Ethics in Philosophy.” Philosophy Today 67, no. 3 (2019): 53-68.

Chapter in an edited book citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Lee, Mary. “Feminism in the 21st Century.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed 3 January 2023).

Dissertation or thesis citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name, Year of Publication.

Example : Brown, Susan. “The Art of Storytelling in American Literature.” PhD diss., University of Oxford, 2020.

Newspaper article citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day, Year.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. “New Developments in Climate Change Research.” The Guardian, September 15, 2022.

AAA (American Anthropological Association) Style

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) style is commonly used in anthropology research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AAA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2019. The Anthropology of Food. New York: Routledge.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue: page range.

Example : Garcia, Carlos. 2021. “The Role of Ethics in Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 123, no. 2: 237-251.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example: Lee, Mary. 2018. “Feminism in Anthropology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name.

Example : Brown, Susan. 2022. “The Art of Storytelling in Anthropology.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. 2021. “New Developments in Anthropology Research.” The Guardian, September 15.

AIP (American Institute of Physics) Style

The American Institute of Physics (AIP) style is commonly used in physics research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AIP style:

Example : Johnson, S. D. 2021. “Quantum Computing and Information.” Journal of Applied Physics 129, no. 4: 043102.

Example : Feynman, Richard. 2018. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. New York: Basic Books.

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Future of Quantum Computing.” In The Handbook of Physics, edited by John Smith, 125-136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Conference proceedings citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Paper.” Proceedings of Conference Name, date and location: page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Chen, Wei. 2019. “The Applications of Nanotechnology in Solar Cells.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Nanotechnology, July 15-17, Tokyo, Japan: 224-229. New York: AIP Publishing.

Example : American Institute of Physics. 2022. “About AIP Publishing.” AIP Publishing. https://publishing.aip.org/about-aip-publishing/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Patent citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Patent Number.

Example : Smith, John. 2018. US Patent 9,873,644.

References Writing Guide

Here are some general guidelines for writing references:

• Follow the citation style guidelines: Different disciplines and journals may require different citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). It is important to follow the specific guidelines for the citation style required.
• Include all necessary information : Each citation should include enough information for readers to locate the source. For example, a journal article citation should include the author(s), title of the article, journal title, volume number, issue number, page numbers, and publication year.
• Use proper formatting: Citation styles typically have specific formatting requirements for different types of sources. Make sure to follow the proper formatting for each citation.
• Order citations alphabetically: If listing multiple sources, they should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name.
• Be consistent: Use the same citation style throughout the entire paper or project.
• Check for accuracy: Double-check all citations to ensure accuracy, including correct spelling of author names and publication information.
• Use reputable sources: When selecting sources to cite, choose reputable and authoritative sources. Avoid sources that are biased or unreliable.
• Include all sources: Make sure to include all sources used in the research, including those that were not directly quoted but still informed the work.
• Use online tools : There are online tools available (e.g., citation generators) that can help with formatting and organizing references.

Purpose of References in Research

References in research serve several purposes:

• To give credit to the original authors or sources of information used in the research. It is important to acknowledge the work of others and avoid plagiarism.
• To provide evidence for the claims made in the research. References can support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research by citing relevant studies, data, or theories.
• To allow readers to find and verify the sources used in the research. References provide the necessary information for readers to locate and access the sources cited in the research, which allows them to evaluate the quality and reliability of the information presented.
• To situate the research within the broader context of the field. References can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge, and can help readers to identify gaps in the literature that the research seeks to address.

Importance of References in Research

References play an important role in research for several reasons:

• Credibility : By citing authoritative sources, references lend credibility to the research and its claims. They provide evidence that the research is based on a sound foundation of knowledge and has been carefully researched.
• Avoidance of Plagiarism : References help researchers avoid plagiarism by giving credit to the original authors or sources of information. This is important for ethical reasons and also to avoid legal repercussions.
• Reproducibility : References allow others to reproduce the research by providing detailed information on the sources used. This is important for verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
• Context : References provide context for the research by situating it within the broader body of knowledge in the field. They help researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
• Evaluation : References provide a means for others to evaluate the research by allowing them to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.

Advantages of References in Research

There are several advantages of including references in research:

• Acknowledgment of Sources: Including references gives credit to the authors or sources of information used in the research. This is important to acknowledge the original work and avoid plagiarism.
• Evidence and Support : References can provide evidence to support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research. This can add credibility and strength to the research.
• Reproducibility : References provide the necessary information for others to reproduce the research. This is important for the verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
• Context : References can help to situate the research within the broader body of knowledge in the field. This helps researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
• Evaluation : Including references allows others to evaluate the research by providing a means to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.
• Ongoing Conversation: References allow researchers to engage in ongoing conversations and debates within their fields. They can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Citing Sources: Sample Reference List Citations

• Style Links & Samples
• Sample Reference List Citations
• Sample Notes and Bibliography Citations
• Sample Author Date Citations
• Citing Nontraditional Sources in Chicago
• Sample Citations
• Major Changes to the New MLA
• Capitalization and Personal Names in Foreign Languages
• Citing Primary Sources
• Ancient Texts
• Citation Consultations Policy

When formatting a citation in APA style, pay particular attention to italics, punctuation, indentation, and capitalization.

Many more samples of citations presented in the APA style can be found in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . Please consult this book or a librarian for help with unusual resources.

All of the following samples are taken from:

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

(In the above sample, the name of the organization is the author. Note that only proper names are capitalized in the title, and the edition number follows the title.)

Book: (This sample from Purdue OWL )

Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991).  APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Book with an Editor:

Robinson, D. N. (Ed.). (1992). Social discourse and moral judgment . San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Note: italicize the title of the book and do not capitalize any words in titles except the first word, proper names, and after a colon. Use the author's or editor's initials only for first and middle names.

Chapter from an Edited Volume or Anthology :

Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the science of subjective well-being. In M. Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.),  The science of subjective well-being  (pp. 17-43). New York, NY: Guilford Press. 

Scholarly Article:

Fuentes, A. (2016). Contemporary evolutionary theory in biological anthropology: Insight into human evolution,  genomics  and challenges to  racialized  pseudo-science.   Revista   Cuicuilco , 23 (65), 293-304. 

Note: Do not set off the title of the article with quotes, italics, underlines, or capital letters (except for the first word, proper names or after a colon). Italicize the title of the journal and capitalize all words in the title of the journal. This sample includes the volume number (23) which is italicized to set it off from the other numbers. The issue number (65) appears in parentheses and is not italicized. You will also notice that there is no space left between the volume number and the first parenthesis for the issue number.

Scholarly Article (with multiple authors):

Calvo, M. G., & Lang, P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking at emotional pictures: Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28 , 221-243. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MOEM.0000040153.26156.ed

Note: This sample includes the volume number (28), which is italicized to set it off from the page numbers. There is no issue number in this example because the journal is paginated by volume. Provide the DOI when available for electronic documents. If a DOI is not available for a scholarly article retrieved online, you should supply the URL of the journal's homepage (NOT the URL from the database). Note authors' names, indentations, spare use of capital letters, page numbers, and use of periods and commas.

Popular Article (with two authors):

Kandel, E. R., & Squire, L. R. (2000, November 10). Neuroscience: Breaking down scientific barriers to the study of brain and mind. Science, 290, 1113-1120.

Note: Do not set off the title of the article with quotes, italics, underlines, or capital letters (except for the first word, proper names, or after a colon). Italicize the title of the magazine and capitalize all keywords in the title. Italicize the volume number to set it off from the page numbers.

Newspaper Article:

Scwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington Post , pp. A1, A4.

Note: Do not set off the title of the article with quotes, italics, underlines, or capital letters (except for the first word, proper names or after a colon). Italicize the title of the newspaper and capitalize all keywords in the title of the newspaper.

Webpage Examples:  (These samples from  Purdue OWL )

Author, A. A. & Author B. B. (Date of publication ,  or  n. d. if no date ). Title of page [Format description when necessary]. Retrieved from https://www.someaddress.com/full/url/

Eco, U. (2015). How to write a thesis [PDF file]. (Farina C. M. & Farina F., Trans.) Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/...How_to_write_a_thesis/.../Umberto+Eco-How+to+Write+... (Original work published 1977).

If the page's author is not listed, start with the title. If the date of publication is not listed, use the abbreviation (n.d.):

Spotlight Resources. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/about_the_owl/owl_information/spotlight_resources.html

Only include a date of access when page content is likely to change over time (ex: if you're citing a wiki):

Purdue University Writing Lab [Facebook page]. (n.d.). Retrieved January 22, 2019, from https://www.facebook.com/PurdueUniversityWritingLab/

Nonperiodical Web Document or Report (Examples: government data such as U.S. Census): (This sample from Purdue OWL )

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication, or n.d. if no date).  Title of document . Retrieved from https://Web address

Angeli, E., Wagner, J., Lawrick, E., Moore, K., Anderson, M., Soderland, L., & Brizee, A. (2010, May 5).  General format.  Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Note: Italicize the title of the website but do not capitalize any words except the first, proper names, and the first word following a colon.

For citing company or industry reports from the library's MarketLine database, also see:

https://guides.library.ualberta.ca/apa-citation-style/business

Publication manual of the American Psychological Association 7.07

If map is within a book, cite as In Title of book after [Type of map].

Cite primary contributors in the Author's space followed by their contributing role in parentheses.

Other forms for [Type of map] include:

• [Demographic map]
• [Topographical map]

Use (n.d.) for No date.

Title of map. (Year). [Type of Map]. Publisher Location: Publisher.

Citation Examples:

Plattsburgh, Clinton County: Dannemora, Peru, Keeseville, Champlain, Rouses Point, New York State, 3rd ed.

(1999). [Road map]. Clifton Park, NY: Jimapco.

Topographical Map:

Berlin, N.Y. - Mass. - VT. (1988). [Topographical map]. reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.

Online Map:

Follow the map citation guidelines as above, but also include a stable URL where the map is found.

Title of map. (Year). [Type of map]. Retrieved from http://xxx.xx

Manhattan sightseeing map. (2010). [City map]. Retrieved from http://www.ny.com/maps/shopmap.html

MTA Metro-North railroad. (2010). [Railroad map]. Retrieved from http://www.mta.info/mnr/html/mnrmap.htm

MTA New York City subway. (2010). [Subway map]. Retrieved from http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/submap.htm

Charts and Graphs

Since the APA manual does not give direct information for citing every type of source, including charts or graphs, they instruct you to follow the example that is most like the source you are trying to cite. Be sure to provide enough information so your readers can locate the source on their own. When possible provide author or creator, year of publication, title, and publishing and/or retrieval data. When citing a chart, graph or map it may be best to follow the citation style for the format in which the information is presented.

All captions for charts should follow the guidelines below for captions for figures.

Captions for Figures (Charts, Graphs, and Maps): Publication manual of the American Psychological Association 5.20-5.25

All captions should be labeled as Figure followed by a number. The caption should begin with a descriptive phrase and include a citation to the original source and copyright information at the end.

Figure 1. Relations between trust beliefs and school adjustment at T1 and loneliness changes during development in early childhood. All paths attained significance at p> .05. Adapted from “The Relation Between Trust Beliefs and Loneliness During Early Childhood, Middle Childhood, and Adulthood,” by K. J. Rotenberg, N. Addis, L. R. Betts, A. Corrigan, C. Fox, Z. Hobson, & … and M. J. Boulton, 2010, Personality and social psychology bulletin , 36, p. 1090. Copyright 2010 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

Documentaries or Feature Films:

David, L., Bender, L., Burns S.Z. (Producers), & Guggenheim, P.D. (Director). (2006). An inconvenient truth [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.

Note : If a film is not available in wide distribution, add the following to the citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).

Online Resources

More examples and samples of papers written using the APA style can be found at the following websites:

• APA Style.Org The APA Citation Style's official website, as excerpted from the 6th edition.
• Excelsior College OWL APA style guide from Excelsior College's Online Writing Lab.
• Slate Citation Machine Excellent tool for citing sources in MLA and APA style. Simple fill in the form for the type of source you are citing, i.e. a book, journal article, website, etc., and this tool will show you the way to cite the reference. Be careful of your capitalization.
• Cornell University Library Guide to APA Citation Style

Additional Information for Citing Special Sources

• Ohio Wesleyan University - Citing Maps
• Map Citation Guide from the University of North Carolina
• Citation Fox (citation generator)
• Knight Cite from Calvin College (citation generator)
• Last Updated: May 22, 2024 1:38 PM
• URL: https://libguides.dickinson.edu/citing

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APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition)

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In-Text Citations

Resources on using in-text citations in APA style

Reference List

Resources on writing an APA style reference list, including citation formats

Other APA Resources

Harvard Citation Style: All Examples

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In-text citations

Two or more works cited at one point in the text

If two or more works by different authors or authoring bodies are cited at one point in the text, use a semi-colon to separate them:

(Larsen 2000; Malinowski 1999)

The authors should be listed in alphabetical order.

Two or three authors or authoring bodies

When citing a work by two or three authors or authoring bodies, cite the names in the order in which they appear on the title page:

(Malinowski, Miller & Gupta 1995) 

In-Text & Reference List Examples

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Harvard Referencing / Harvard Referencing Style Examples

Harvard Referencing Style Examples

What is harvard referencing style.

Citing the work of others helps to make your work more impactful. It could be direct quotes , paraphrases of someone else’s ideas, statistical figures, or summaries of main points. There are different methods for crediting resources; Harvard referencing style (or Harvard style for short) is one such method.  

Harvard style follows the author-date system and includes two types of citations:

• in-text citations  
• references  

In-text citations

In-text citations  are included within the text of the main document. They are placed next to the information you are referencing, so the reader is clear on what information came from another source.

In-text citation example:

(Bloom, 2005) or Bloom (2005) wrote…

Every in-text citation has a corresponding reference in a reference list. A reference includes additional details about each source referenced. This enables the reader to refer to the original source, should they need to.  

The reference list is a detailed list of all the works consulted while writing. It is placed at the end of the document.  

Reference example for the above in-text citation:

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Bloom, H. (2005) Novelists and novels . Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers.

Below are Harvard referencing examples of in-text citations and reference list entries for the different kinds of sources that you might use.  

In-text citation structure and example:  

(Author Surname, Publication Year)

(Ozeki, 2013)  

Reference structure and example:  

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Ozeki, R. (2013) A tale for the time being . New York: Penguin Books.  

Book with two or three authors

For books with two or three authors, the names of all the authors are given in both the in-text citation and the reference entry.  

(1 st Author Surname and 2 nd Author Surname, Publication Year)  

(Lodge and Wood, 2000)

1 st Author Surname, Initials. and 2 nd Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Lodge, D. and Wood, N. (2000) Modern criticism and theory: a reader. 2nd edn. Harlow: Longman.  

Book with four or more authors

If the number of authors is four or more, only the first author’s name is used followed by ‘et al.’ , italicised, which is Latin for ‘and others’.

(1 st Author Surname et al., Publication Year)

(Akmajian et al. , 2014)

Reference structure and example:

1 st Author Surname, Initials. e t al. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Akmajian, A. et al. (2014) Linguistics: an introduction to language and communication . 6th edn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Book with translator  

For books with a translator, only the author’s name is included in the in-text reference.   The translator is given in the reference list entry, along with the language from which it was translated. This comes right after the title.

(Dostoevsky, 1993)

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Translated from the Language by Translator Initials. Surname. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Dostoevsky, F. (1993) Crime and punishment . Translated from the Russian by R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky. London: Vintage.  

Journal articles

Journal articles are highly credible sources of information. The example below was authored by more than three individuals, so the term ‘ et al. ’ is used in lieu of listing all authors.

In-text citation structure and example:

(Lomolino et al., 2020)

Journal reference list entries often have extra information, such as article title, volume, issue number, page numbers, or a specific date.

With journals, the volume number follows the title. If there are any specific parts of the issue, numbered or organized according to months, these details are mentioned alongside in brackets.  

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) ‘Article title’, Journal Name , Volume(Issue), Page(s). Available at: URL or DOI (Accessed: date).  

Lomolino, M. et al. (2013) ‘Of mice and mammoths: generality and antiquity of the island rule’, Journal of Biogeography , 40(8), pp. 1427-1439. Available at: https://www.jstor/org/stable/23463664 (Accessed: 10 September 2020).

Newspaper or magazine

(Ingle, 2020)

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) ‘Article title’, Newspaper/Magazine Name , Day Month Published, Page(s). Available at: URL or DOI (Accessed: date).  

Ingle, S. (2020) ‘Geraint Thomas insists he has nothing to prove at road world championships’, The Guardian, 24 September. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/sprot/2020/sep/24/geraint-thomas-insists-he-has-nothing-to-prove-at-road-world-championships-cycling (Accessed: 11 October 2020).

  For online articles, you should always include the URL and date of access.

Social media and other online sources

(Author/Poster Name, Publication Year)

(Cramer, 2020)

References for social media posts have a similar format to online articles. However, sometimes they don’t have a true ‘title’. For example, for Twitter posts, the full text of the tweet is used as the title, unless the tweet is overly long.

Author/Poster Surname, Initial(s). [@Handle] (Publication year) Content of Post [Social Media Site] Day Month Published. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).

Cramer, K. [@SenKevinCramer] (2020) Supreme Court vacancies are an important issue to the people I serve [Twitter] 24 September. Available at: https://twitter.com/SenKevinCramer/status/1308915548244398081 (Accessed: 25 September 2020).

The format for citing social media is different than the format for citing regular websites and web pages. This guide on how to cite a website in Harvard style provides details on how to cite web content that is not posted on social media.

(Image Creator or Photographer Surname, Publication Year)

(Pinneo, 2020)

Print reference structure:  

Author, Initial(s). (Year) Title of the Image [Photograph]. Place of Publication: Publisher (if available).

Online reference structure and example:

If the image is on the Internet, then the place of publication and the publisher name are replaced by the image URL and access date.

Author, Initial(s). (Year) Title of the Image .   Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).  

Pinneo, B.J. (2020) Dusty dreams . Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/photo-of-the-day/2020/09/dusty-dreams/ (Accessed: 23 September 2020).

In-text reference structure and example:  

(Film Title , Year Released )

( Pride & Prejudice , 2005)

For films, the title of the film is used in place of the author name.  

Title of the Film (Year Released) Directed by Director Initial. Surname. Available at: Name of Streaming Service (Accessed: Day Month Year).  

Pride & Prejudice (2005) Directed by J. Wright. UK: Universal Pictures. Available at: Netflix (Accessed: 29 September 2020).

Published October 29, 2020.

Harvard Formatting Guide

Harvard Formatting

• et al Usage
• Direct Quotes
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Page Numbers
• Writing an Outline
• View Harvard Guide

Reference Examples

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References provide the information necessary for readers to identify and retrieve each work cited in the text .

Check each reference carefully against the original publication to ensure information is accurate and complete. Accurately prepared references help establish your credibility as a careful researcher and writer.

Consistency in reference formatting allows readers to focus on the content of your reference list, discerning both the types of works you consulted and the important reference elements (who, when, what, and where) with ease. When you present each reference in a consistent fashion, readers do not need to spend time determining how you organized the information. And when searching the literature yourself, you also save time and effort when reading reference lists in the works of others that are written in APA Style.

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Instructional Aids

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• Boston University Libraries

APA Citations (7th edition)

Citing books and ebooks.

• Citing Journal Articles
• Citing Videos
• Citing Web Resources

In this tutorial, you will learn the basics for citing a book, how to cite if there is more than one author or if a book is not a first edition, and how to cite a chapter from an edited book. Regardless if you use a print book or an eBook, you will cite it in the same way. There is no differentiation.

Every APA reference needs four parts:  author, date, title,  and  source . As you go through these examples, you will learn how to identify these four parts and how to place and format them into a proper APA reference.

Example 1: A Book With One Author

For the first example, you will learn how to cite this book:  Betting the Farm on a Drought: Stories from the Front Lines of Climate Change .

The first step is to identify the  author  of the book. This can usually be found on the cover or title page.

To list an author, write the  last name , a  comma , and the  first and middle initials , followed by a  period .

Example: McGraw, S.

Next, identify when this book was written. In this case, you will need to open the book and look inside, usually on the back of the title page, to find the date,  2015 .

List the  date  after the author, in  parentheses , followed by a  period .

Example: McGraw, S. (2015).

Next, identify the  title . Even though there is no colon on the page,  Stories from the Front Lines of Climate Change  is styled differently and in a smaller font. This shows that it is the  subtitle , and should be separated from the title with a  colon .

List the  title  of the book after the date, in  italics . Make sure you only capitalize the  first word of the title ,  the first word of the subtitle , which comes after the colon, and any  proper nouns .

Example: McGraw, S. (2015).  Betting the farm on a drought: Stories from the front lines of climate change .

Next, you need to identify the  source . For books, you need the  publisher . The book's title page shows that the publisher is  University of Texas Press .

Type the name of the  publisher , and end with a  period .

Example: McGraw, S. (2015).  Betting the farm on a drought: Stories from the front lines of climate change . University of Texas Press.

The last piece of information you need is the  DOI , which stands for digital object identifier. You can find a book’s DOI on the back of the title page. Not every book and eBook will have a DOI available. If there is no DOI, then this element can be omitted.

If the book contains a DOI, then include it after the publisher. First, type  https://doi.org/  and then the book’s DOI. Otherwise, end after the publisher. This concludes the reference.

Example: McGraw, S. (2015).  Betting the farm on a drought: Stories from the front lines of climate change . University of Texas Press. https://doi.org/10.7560/756618

If you refer to a work in your paper, either by directly quoting, paraphrasing, or by referring to main ideas, you will need to include an in-text parenthetical citation. There are a number of ways to do this. In this example, a  signal phrase  is used to introduce a direct quote. Note that the  author's name  is given in the text, and the  publication date  and  page number(s)  are enclosed in parentheses at the beginning and end of the sentence.

Example: As McGraw (2015) writes, "As with the nuclear danger in the 1960s, the potential risks of global climate change are staggering" (p. 39).

Example 2: Multiple Authors; Editions

For this next book, there are  two authors . You can obtain the date, the title, and the publisher from the book, using the steps illustrated in the first example. Note that this book is a  eighth edition . You will need to include that information in your citation as well.

When citing multiple authors, list the first author as normal, followed by a  comma , an  ampersand (&) , and then the second author. In this example, the first author has a middle initial, so this is included. The  edition  is placed right after the  title  but  before the period .

Example: Wald, K. D., & Calhoun-Brown, A. (2018).  Religion and politics in the United States  (8th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Example 3: A Chapter in an Edited Book

In this example, the entire book is overseen by  editors , but each  chapter  has a different author. If you are only using information from a single chapter, you will need to cite it a certain way.

First, find the general information for this book, as demonstrated in the previous examples. Then you need to locate the  author ,  title,  and  page numbers  of the chapter you are citing.

To cite, list the  author of the chapter  first, followed by the  date  and then the  title of the chapter . Note that the title of the chapter is not in italics. Then type the word  In , and list the  editors of the book , with the initials first. At the end of their names, list  Ed. or Eds. in parentheses , which is the abbreviation for editor or editors. Then, type a  comma , the  title of the book , and include the  page numbers in parentheses . End with the publisher.

Example: Landes, D. (2000). Culture makes almost all the difference. In L. E. Harrison & S. P. Huntington (Eds.),  Culture matters: How values shape human progress  (pp. 2–13). Basic Books.

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APA Style (6th ed.)

• Position of the citation
• Secondary Referencing
• Date of Publication
• Page numbers
• Citing Sources Multiple Times
• Citing from Web pages
• Paraphrasing and Summarising
• Reference Lists and Bibliographies
• Examples of References in APA (6th ed.) style

Examples of References in APA style (6th edition)

• Examples of References in APA style
• APA Reference Examples A-Z
• Comparison of 6th and 7th editions of APA
• Setting the Bibliographic Style
• Inserting In-text Citations
• How to create a Reference List
• Managing Sources
• Editing Citations
• Updating your Reference list
• Find Sources
• Evaluate Sources
• Write the Reference
• Write the Annotation
• Examples of Annotations
• Journal Articles
• Web pages and social media
• Newspaper articles

Dictionary or Encyclopaedia

Thesis or dissertation.

• Reports and Datasets
• Conferences
• Images, figures and tables

Exhibitions

• Audiovisual and Digital Media
• Lecture Notes and Presentations

• Author/Editor (Surname, Initials) ,
• (Year of publication).
• Title (in italics) .
• Edition (other than first edition) .
• Place of publication: Publisher.

An e-book retrieved from an academic database that does not have a DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is referenced as though it were the print version, as above. (A DOI is a unique alphanumeric string that identifies content and provides a persistent link to its location on the internet. DOIs can be found in database records and the reference lists of published works).

Books with a URL or a DOI can be referenced like this:

• Author/editor (Surname, Initials)
• (Year of publication)
• Title of book (in italics)
• (Edition) (if not the 1st edition)
• DOI or Retrieved from URL

Book Chapter

• Author of chapter/section (Surname, Initials)
• ‘Title of chapter/section’.
• ‘In:’ followed by author/editor of book, (in direct order)
• Title of book (in italics) .
• (Page reference).
• Place of publication: Publisher,

Journal article (print)

• Author(s) (Surname, Initials)
• Title of article
• Title of journal (in italics, first letter of each word should be capitalised, except for words such as and, of, the)        
• Issue information (volume, issue, pages) (volume in italics)

Journal article (online)

• Title of article.
• Title of journal (in italics, first letter of each word should be capitalised, except for words such as and, of, the)
• Issue information (date, volume, issue no., pages) (volume in italics)
• Retrieved from: URL

Journal article (database without DOI)

Journal articles retrieved from databases without a DOI can be referenced like a print journal, as above.

Journal article (with DOI)

• Issue information (date, volume , issue no., pages) (volume in italics)

Journal article (more than 7 authors)

List the first six authors followed by three spaced ellipsis points (...) and then the last author's name.

Journal article (pre-publication)

“Pre-print”, “In press” and “advanced online publication” usually refer to articles that have been accepted for publication, but may not yet have been assigned to a publication volume/issue. These articles can be cited using the year of online publication and the DOI.

• Issue information (date, volume, issue no., pages) (if any available)
• Advance online publication.

arXiv is a collection facility for scientific 'e-prints'. Some of them have been published and some have not. APA recommends updating your references when you're close to finishing your assignment. If you've cited a preprint that has since been published, cite the published journal article.

In the example below, you will see that the title is in italics. This is because it hasn't yet been accepted in a journal and is, therefore, considered a stand-alone work.

Journal Article (with article numbers, not page numbers)

If the journal article has an article number instead of a page range, include the word “Article” and then the article number instead of the page range.

• Journal Title  (in italics)
• Volume ,  (in italics)
• Article number 

Magazine Article

• (Year of publication, Month day)
• Title of magazine (in italics, first letter of each word should be capitalised, except for words such as and, of, the)      

• Author (Surname, Initials or Organisation name)
• (Year)  (Month Day, if applicable).
• Title of webpage   (in italics)

If no date can be established, use n.d. to indicate no date in the citation and the reference.

• Author of message
• (Year, Month Day).
• Title of message
• [Blog post]

• Author (surname followed by initials) and/or [screen name]
• (Year, Month day) tweet posted
• full text of tweet (If a tweet is longer than 40 words, write the first 40 words)

• Author and/or [given name]
• (Year, month day)
• Title of page   or post
• [Facebook status update].
• For individual authors, provide their full first name in square brackets after their initial as this is their social media identity information.
• For the title, provide the name of the page or the content or caption of the post (up to the first 40 words).

LinkedIn Profile

• Author (name associated with the account)
• Title of page ( Use the page title in the reference (e.g., “Home,” “About,” “Jobs”).)
• [LinkedIn page].
• Retrieved date from: URL ( Provide a retrieval date because the content is designed to change over time and is not archived)

• Author and/or [screen name]
• (Year posted, month day)
• Content of the post (up to the first 20 words)
• [Photograph]
• Retrieved from URL

• Author and/or [Username]
• Content of the post up to the first 20 words. Count a URL or other link, a hashtag, or an emoji as one word each, and include them in the reference if they fall within the first 20 words. Do not italicize emojis.
• [Video]  description of the audiovisuals

Wikipedia is a free online encyclopaedia, created and edited by volunteers around the world. It is not a scholarly source, so your lecturer may not be happy for you to use it as a source in your assignments. Scholarly assignments should generally rely on peer-reviewed and other scholarly work vetted by experts in the field. However, it may be a good starting point for you in your research to find citations to original source materials that you do want to use.

Wikipedia is a constantly changing site, so cite an archived version of the page, if you can (select 'view history' and then the date of the version you used). If it doesn't have a permanent link to an archived version of the page, include a URL for the entry and the retrieval date. The retrieval date is always required because the source material may change over time. 'n.d.' is an abbreviation of 'no date' and it is used as Wikipedia is constantly changing.

• Title of wiki (in italics)
• Retrieved date, from URL

Newspaper article (print)

• Author (Surname, Initials) 
• (Year of publication, Month day).
• Title of article 
• Title of newspaper (in italics) .
• Page reference.

Newspaper article (online)

• Author of entry (if there is one) (Surname, initials)
• Title of entry.
• ‘In:’ Editor (initial and surname) (Ed.)
• Title of dictionary or encyclopaedia  (in italics) .
• (Edition, page numbers of entry)

• Author (Surname, Initials)
• (Year of submission).
• Title of thesis (in italics) .
• (Type of thesis or dissertation)  e.g. Unpublished Master's thesis
• Degree awarding body, location (if unpublished)
• Name of database or archive, URL  (if published)

• Title of data (version)   (in italics)
• [Type of work]  (i.e. dataset)

Government Publication

• Name of Government Department
• Title (in italics)
• (Report Series and number) (if available)
• Place of publication: Publisher (if in print)
• URL (if online)

Company Report

• Title of report . (in italics)
• Place of Publication: Publisher or URL 

• Name of authority or organisation.
• Number and title of standard (in italics) .
• Place of publication: Publisher (if in print) .
• URL (if accessed online)

Conference Paper (in edited book)

• Title of the contribution paper
• In: Name of editor or conference chair (Initial, Last name (Ed (s).)
• Title of conference proceedings (in Italics)
• (Page numbers)
• Place of publication: Publisher

Conference Paper (Journal)

• Author of paper
• Title of paper
• Title of Journal (in italics)
• Issue information (volume, issue, date)

Conference Paper or Poster Presentation 

• (Year, month of conference).
• Paper or Poster presented at Title of conference: Subtitle of conference

Images, illustrations, photos (print)

If you are citing an illustration, figure, diagram or table, start with the source in which it appeared. In your in-text citation, give the page number and any caption number that will help to identify the illustration, using the terminology in the book or article (for example, illus./fig./diagram/logo/table). The reference list entry will be for the whole article or book.

In-text citation:

Reference List:

In the reference list, you list the book in which the image is found:

When you include an image or photo in your text, as well as citing the source, you will also need to include a caption and list it in a Table of Figures ( click here for more information ). Images you created yourself don't have to be cited, but should still be included in the list of figures.

Image, illustration, photo or table (online)

• Creator  (Surname, initial(s))
• [Internet handle] (if appropriate)
• Title of image, figure, illustration or table 
• [Type of image]. (image, chart, diagram, graph, illustration or photograph)

Photographs (Online Collection)

• Photographer
• Title of photograph/video (or collection) 
• [Type of image].  

If you viewed an image in person rather than online (e.g. in a museum or gallery), the source information is different. You will need to include the name and location of the institution where you viewed the image.

• (Year of creation)  (if available)
• Title of the work (in italics)
• [Format description]  (in square brackets)
• City, Country: Institution or collection that houses the work

If you haven't seen the artwork in person and saw it online, use the website in the location part of your reference.

• Originator (Name of organisation)
• Sheet number, scale.
• Publisher (if different from author)
• URL (if viewed online)

It can often be hard to find accurate information about images accessed online.  However, if you do need to cite an image with no author, date or title listed, there are ways around this.  For untitled images, include a description of the image, in square brackets, where the title would usually go. If there is no publication date, add “n.d.” in place of the date, and add the date that you accessed the image.

• Curator(s) (Surname, Initial(s)) .
• (Year or years ran).
• Exhibition Title [Exhibition].
• Museum name,
• City, Country.
• URL of exhibition website (if available)

When the curator is unknown, move the title of the exhibition to the author position of the reference.

Exhibition Catalogue

• Artist (Surname, Initial) (or Gallery/Institution).
• [Exhibition catalogue].
• City of publication, Country/State: Publisher.

• Director(s) (Surname, Initial) (Director) &
• Producer(s) (Surname, Initial) (Producer)
• (Year of original release).
• [Description]. (e.g. Film)
• Country of origin: studio.

Film (from Streaming Service)

• (Year) (in round brackets)

Online Video

• Creator (Surname, Initial). [Screen name].
• (Year, Month day).
• Title of video [Video file]

TV Programme

• Producer(s) & Director(s)
• (Year, Month day)
• Title (in italics) [Television broadcast].
• Place of broadcast: Name of broadcaster.

Episode of a TV Series

• Writer (surname and initial(s)) & Director (surname and initial(s))
• (Date of broadcast or copyright)
• Title of episode [Television series episode]
• Producer (initials and surname)
• Series title (in italics)
• Place of publication: Production company

Radio Programme (Online)

Presenter (Surname, Initial) (Host).

• ( Year, Month Day of broadcast).

Title of programme [Description i.e. Radio broadcast ].

Place of production: Broadcast channel.

Retrieved from URL (if heard online)

• Name of primary contributor (Host or Producer)
• Title of podcast (in italics)

Lecture Notes

Notes you took during a lecture or class handouts that are not posted online are not retrievable by someone else, so do not belong in your reference list. Instead, you treat them like personal communication and just refer to them in your text.

Lecture Notes or Powerpoint Slides (online)

• Lecturer (Surname, Initial(s))
• Course/Module and T it le of lecture [Lecture notes or PowerPoint slides]. (in italics)

Recorded Lectures/Talks

• Author (Surname, Initial(s))
• (Year, Month).
• Title of lecture [file format].

Online Course or Massive Open Online Course (MOOC)

• Instructor(s)  (Surname, Initial(s))
• (Year of course creation  if known ).
• Title of course [format].
• Site that holds the course

Open Educational Resource

• Author  (Surname, Initial(s))
• (Year added with Month day).
• Retrieved date from URL

Music on CD or Vinyl

• Writer ( Surname, Initial ).
• Title of song
• [Recorded by Artist (Initial, Surname or Band name, if different from writer) ].
• Title of album (in italics)
• [Medium of recording].
• Location: Record Label.

Music Streaming

• Name of artist.
• Title of album/track (in italics)
• [Description; Name of streaming service].
• Record Label

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References: Common Reference List Examples

Article (with doi).

Alvarez. E., & Tippins, S. (2019). Socialization agents that Puerto Rican college students use to make financial decisions. Journal of Social Change , 11 (1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.5590/JOSC.2019.11.1.07

Laplante, J. P., & Nolin, C. (2014). Consultas and socially responsible investing in Guatemala: A case study examining Maya perspectives on the Indigenous right to free, prior, and informed consent.  Society & Natural Resources ,  27 , 231–248.   https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2013.861554

Provide a DOI number if there is one. DOI stands for "digital object identifier," a number specific to the article that can help others locate the source. Use  CrossRef.org  to locate DOI information. This rule applies regardless of how the source was accessed (e.g., online, paper, etc.; see APA 7, Section 9.34).

In APA 7, format the DOI as a web address. Active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in the formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout the reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

Also see our Quick Answer FAQ, "Can I use the DOI format provided by library databases?"

Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R. (2018). Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House.” PLoS ONE , 13 (3), Article e0193972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972

For journal articles that are assigned article numbers rather than page ranges, include the article number in place of the page range.

For more on citing electronic resources, see  Electronic Sources References .

Article (Without DOI)

Found in a common academic research database or in print.

Casler , T. (2020). Improving the graduate nursing experience through support on a social media platform. MEDSURG Nursing , 29 (2), 83–87.

If an article does not have a DOI and you retrieved it from a common academic research database through the university library, there is no need to include any additional electronic retrieval information. The reference list entry looks like the entry for a print copy of the article. (This format differs from APA 6 guidelines that recommended including the URL of a journal's homepage when the DOI was not available.)

Note that APA 7 has additional guidance on reference list entries for articles found only in specific databases or archives such as Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, UpToDate, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and university archives. See APA 7, Section 9.30 for more information.

Found on an Open Access Website

Eaton, T. V., & Akers, M. D. (2007). Whistleblowing and good governance. CPA Journal , 77 (6), 66–71. http://archives.cpajournal.com/2007/607/essentials/p58.htm

Provide the direct web address/URL to a journal article found on the open web, often on an open access journal's website.

In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

Weinstein, J. A. (2010).  Social change  (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

If the book has an edition number, include it in parentheses after the title of the book. If the book does not list any edition information, do not include an edition number. The edition number is not italicized. (Note: In APA 6, the location of the publisher was included. This is no longer the case in APA 7; only the publisher name is provided.) Regarding publisher name, when a publisher is named after a person (as is the case with Lawrence Erlbaum or John Wiley), list only the surname (Erlbaum or Wiley). In addition, exclude “Publishers,” “Inc.,” and “Co.” from publisher names in reference entries. 

American Nurses Association. (2010).  Nursing: Scope and standards of practice  (2nd ed.).  

In APA 7, if the author and publisher are the same, only include the author in its regular place and omit the publisher. (Note that this is a change from APA 6, where the term “Author” was used for the publisher instead of repeating the name.)

Lencioni, P. (2012). The advantage: Why organizational health trumps everything else in business . Jossey-Bass. https://amzn.to/343XPSJ

As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, it is no longer necessary to include the ebook format in the title. However, if you listened to an audiobook and the content differs from the text version (e.g., abridged content) or your discussion highlights elements of the audiobook (e.g., narrator's performance), then note that it is an audiobook in the title element in brackets. For ebooks and online audiobooks, also include the DOI number (if available) or nondatabase URL but leave out the electronic retrieval element if the ebook was found in a common academic research database, as with journal articles. APA 7 allows for the shortening of long DOIs and URLs, as shown in this example. See APA 7, Section 9.36 for more information. 

Chapter in an Edited Book

Poe, M. (2017). Reframing race in teaching writing across the curriculum. In F. Condon & V. A. Young (Eds.),  Performing antiracist pedagogy in rhetoric, writing, and communication  (pp. 87–105). University Press of Colorado.

Include the page numbers of the chapter in parentheses after the book title. The page range should not be italicized.

Christensen, L. (2001). For my people: Celebrating community through poetry. In B. Bigelow, B. Harvey, S. Karp, & L. Miller (Eds.),  Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice  (Vol. 2, pp. 16–17). Rethinking Schools.

Also include volume number and edition numbers in the parenthetical information after the book title where relevant.

Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)

When a text has been republished as part of an anthology collection, after the author’s name include the date of the version that was read. At the end of the entry, place the date of the original publication inside parenthesis along with the note “original work published.” For in-text citations of republished work, use both dates in the parenthetical citation, original date first with a slash separating the years, as in this example: Freud (1923/1961). For more information on reprinted or republished works, see APA 7, Sections 9.40-9.41.

Dissertations or Theses

Retrieved from a database

Nalumango, K. (2019). Perceptions about the asylum-seeking process in the United States after 9/11 (Publication No. 13879844) [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Retrieved From an Institutional or Personal Website

Evener. J. (2018). Organizational learning in libraries at for-profit colleges and universities [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6606&context=dissertations

Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis

Kirwan, J. G. (2005). An experimental study of the effects of small-group, face-to-face facilitated dialogues on the development of self-actualization levels: A movement towards fully functional persons [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center.

For further examples and information, see APA 7, Section 10.6.

Legal Material

For legal references, APA follows the recommendations of The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation , so if you have any questions beyond the examples provided in APA, seek out that resource as well.

Court Decisions

Reference format:

Name v. Name, Volume Reporter Page (Court Date). URL

Sample reference entry:

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483

Sample citation:

In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.

Note: Italicize the case name when it appears in the text of your paper rather than citing it—for example, “Cases such as  Brown v. Board of Education  and  Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle  illustrate ...”

Name of Act, Title Source § Section Number (Year). URL

Sample reference entry for a federal statute:

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004). https://www.congress.gov/108/plaws/publ446/PLAW-108publ446.pdf

Sample reference entry for a state statute:

Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, Minn. Stat. §§ 148.171 et seq. (2019). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/148.171

Sample citation: Minnesota nurses must maintain current registration in order to practice (Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, 2010).

Note: The § symbol stands for "section." Use §§ for sections (plural). To find this symbol in Microsoft Word, go to "Insert" and click on Symbol." Look in the Latin 1-Supplement subset.

Note: U.S.C. stands for "United States Code."

Note: The Latin abbreviation " et seq. " means "and what follows" and is used when the act includes the cited section and ones that follow.

Note: List the chapter first followed by the section or range of sections.

Unenacted Bills and Resolutions

(Those that did not pass and become law)

Title [if there is one], bill or resolution number, xxx Cong. (year). URL

Sample reference entry for Senate bill:

Anti-Phishing Act, S. 472, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/senate-bill/472

Sample reference entry for House of Representatives resolution:

Anti-Phishing Act, H.R. 1099, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/1099

The Anti-Phishing Act (2005) proposed up to 5 years prison time for people running Internet scams.

These are the three legal areas you may be most apt to cite in your scholarly work. For more examples and explanation, see APA 7, Chapter 11.

Magazine Article

Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology , 39 (6). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/06/ideology

Note that for citations, include only the year: Clay (2008). For magazine articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For magazine articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print magazine, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Newspaper Article

Baker, A. (2014, May 7). Connecticut students show gains in national tests. New York Times . http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/08/nyregion/national-assessment-of-educational-progress-results-in-Connecticut-and-New-Jersey.html

Include the full date in the format Year, Month Day. Do not include a retrieval date for periodical sources found on websites. Note that for citations, include only the year: Baker (2014). For newspaper articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For newspaper articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print newspaper, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Technical and Research Reports

The general structure for a technical or research report is as follows:

Author, A. A. (Publication Year). Title of work . Publisher Name. DOI or URL

Edwards, C. (2015). Lighting levels for isolated intersections: Leading to safety improvements (Report No. MnDOT 2015-05). Center for Transportation Studies. http://www.cts.umn.edu/Publications/ResearchReports/reportdetail.html?id=2402

Technical and research reports by governmental agencies and other research institutions usually follow a different publication process than scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. However, they present original research and are often useful for research papers. Sometimes, researchers refer to these types of reports as gray literature , and white papers are a type of this literature. See APA 7, Section 10.4 for more information.

American Federation of Teachers. (n.d.). Community schools . http://www.aft.org/issues/schoolreform/commschools/index.cfm

If there is no specified author, then use the organization’s name as the author. In such a case, there is no need to repeat the organization's name after the title.

Vartan, S. (2018, January 30). Why vacations matter for your health . CNN. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/why-vacations-matter/index.html

For webpages from news websites, include the site name after the title and before the URL. If the source is an online newspaper or magazine, follow the models in the previous sections of this page. In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed, and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

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Health Referencing in APA : A-Z Referencing Examples

• Introduction to Referencing

A-Z Referencing Examples

This page explains how to write references. See the Introduction to Referencing page for guidance on in-text citations.

Click on a source below to find out how to reference it in your reference list. Frequently referenced items can be found at the top of the list, followed by an A-Z. If a source is not listed, visit the APA Style Blog , or consult the APA manual.

Frequently Referenced Items

For a full list of items see A-Z Reference Examples.

Author, N. (Year). Title (Edition.). Publisher. https://doi.org/xxxxx

• Author's family name
• Author’s initial(s)
• [Full stop]
• Year (in round brackets)
• Title of book (in sentence case and in italics )
• Edition (in round brackets, if there is one)
• DOI (if there is one)

Ninagawa, C. (2023). AI time series control system modelling . Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4594-6

Example 2 (Book with two authors and an edition)

Mankiw, N. G., & Taylor, M. P. (2023). Economics (6th ed.). Cengage.

• The title is in sentence case and in italics .
• If there is no edition, leave it out (see Example 1).
• If the book chapters have different authors, see the Chapter in an edited book section.
• Print and e-books are referenced in the same way. If there is a DOI , add it to the end of the reference (see Example 1).

This is a simplified version of image referencing using APA. All taught students are permitted to use this simplified guidance but should not be marked down for using the official APA format.

Format and Examples

Reference list

Images cited in your work need a full reference in your reference list, except for images created by yourself. For example, reference an image from a website as a website reference.

• The figure number is in bold. Number your figures based on their order within your assignment.
• The descriptive title is in title case and in italics .
• Follow the normal in-text citation rules when referencing multiple authors.
• If you have created the image yourself (and not adapted it using information found in another source), you do not need a citation under the image (see Example 3).
• If you are working on an artistic assignment, poster, or presentation, you may be able to reference in a different way. See: Images in posters, presentations, and artistic assignments .

Author, N. (Year). Article title.  Journal Title, volume (issue), pages. https://doi.org/xxxx  

• Title of article (in sentence case)
• Title of Journal (in title case and italics )
• Volume number (in italics ), issue number (in round brackets)
• Page numbers

Example 1 (Journal article with a DOI)

Chen, H. C., & Pang, N. S. (2022). Sustaining the ecosystem of higher education in China: Perspectives from young researchers. Perspectives in Education, 40 (3), 95-117. https://doi.org/10.18820/2519593X/pie.v40.i3.7  

Example 2 (Journal article without a DOI or issue number, accessed through Locate or a library database)

Cairns, J. (2024). Phases of the Buddhist approach to the environment. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 31 , 1-33.

Example 3  (Journal article without a DOI, accessed on a website, but not via Locate or a library database)

Nield, S. (2022). Accessible podcasts. ALISS Quarterly, 18 (1), 13-15.  https://alissnet.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/aliss-vol-18-no.1-oct-2022-draft.pdf  

• Journal article title is in sentence case .
• Journal title and volume number are in title case and in italics.  
• If there is no volume or issue number, leave it out (see Example 2). 
• Some online articles have article numbers instead of page numbers. After the issue number, write the word Article and then the article number, e.g. Article e0230193.
• If the article does not have a DOI and the article is from Locate or a library database (e.g. ProQuest, EBSCO, JStor etc.), there is no need to include a link (see Example 2).
• If the article is from another website with no DOI, use the web link (see Example 3).

Named author

Author, N. (Year). Report title . Organisation. https://doi.org/xxxxx or https://www.website.com/report  

• Report title (in sentence case and in italics )
• Organisation
• Website link

If no author, use the organisation’s name as the author

Organisation. (Year). Report title . https://doi.org/xxxxx or https://www.website.com/report  

Example 1 (Named author, a DOI, and published as part of a series)

Russell, H., & E. Smyth, E. (2024). Caregiving among young adults in Ireland (ESRI Research Series 168). Economic & Social Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.26504/rs168  

Example 2 (Report with the organisation as author. Date written in full)

National Audit Office. (2024, March 15). Use of artificial intelligence in government (Session 2023-24 HC 612). https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/use-of-artificial-intelligence-in-government.pdf  

Example 3  (No DOI. The web link is to the home page as it is a subscription database which requires a login)

Shao, D. (2023). Supermarkets, China 2023 . Mintel. https://clients.mintel.com/  

• The report title is in sentence case and in italics .
• If using the organisation's name as the author, do not repeat the organisation's name after the title (see Example 2).
• Where there is a report number, include it after the title in brackets, not in italics (see Example 1).
• Use the full publication date if written on the report (See Example 2).
• Use the DOI where available rather than a web link (see Example 1).
• If accessing a report on a subscription database that requires a login, use the link to the homepage (see Example 3).
• For more information on Government reports, see the Government reports section.

Website with named author

Author, N. (Date).  Title of the specific webpage . Website Name.  https://www.website.com/page  

• Title of the specific webpage (in sentence case and in italics )
• Organisation or website’s name

Website Name. (Date).  Title of the specific webpage . https://www.website.com/page  

Example 1 (Named author)

Sakai, C. (2023, September 18). Nurturing creative confidence in early years: A virtual conversation. Victoria and Albert Museum. https://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/museum-life/coventrys-coundon-court-school-wins-inaugural-va-innovate-national-schools-challenge  

Example 2 (Organisation as the author)

Health and Care Professions Council. (2023).  The standards of proficiency for paramedics . https://www.hcpc-uk.org/standards/standards-of-proficiency/paramedics/  

Example 3  (Website changing regularly. Web link is to the home page as it is a subscription database which requires a login)

Fame. (n.d.). [Telecommunications companies in the West Midlands]. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://fame4.bvdinfo.com/  

• The title of the webpage is in sentence case and in italics .
• If no date has been given, use n.d. (see Example 3).
• If using the website name as the author, do not repeat the website name after the title (see Example 2).
• Use the date the page was published – this could be (Year), (Year, Month) or (Year, Month Day) depending on the information available (see Examples 1 and 2).
• If a website changes regularly (e.g. a data dashboard), include the specific date you accessed the website (Month Day, Year) before the web address (see Example 3).
• If there is no clear title, provide a description of the web page in [square brackets] and do not use italics (see Example 3).
• If the site requires a login, use the link to the homepage (see Example 3).

A-Z Reference Examples

Act Title Year

In-text citation: Section 6 of the Human Rights Act 1998 allows victims of privacy invasions to bring actions against public authorities.  

• The Act title is in title case and not in italics.
• The year is not in brackets as it is part of the title.
• Do not include a link, even if the Act is found online.
• It is best practice to use a narrative citation. Avoid putting Acts of Parliament in brackets (see Example 1b).

This guidance is for students who have been given permission by their module leader to use generative AI tools (e.g. ChatGPT, QuillBot, Chimp Rewriter, DALL-E etc.).  

If permitted to use AI, you must: 

1) Cite and reference any information generated by AI. 

2) Follow all instructions in your assignment brief regarding its use. 

Organisation. (Year). Title of software (Version information) [Type of software]. https://www.website.com/   

In-text citation

Details of prompt used and response (Name of AI, year). 

• In your assignment provide the prompt you have used and integrate the response into your sentence (see Example).

Ancient or classic work read in a book   

Author, N. (Year of the version you read). Title (N. Translator, Trans. or N. Editor, Ed.). Publisher. (Original work published Year) 

Ancient or classic work read on a website 

Author, N. (Year of the version you read). Title (N. Translator, Trans. or N. Editor, Ed.). Website Name. https://doi.org/xxxxx (Original work published Year) 

In-text citations   

( Author, Year of original publication/Year of the version you read) 

Author (Year of original publication/Year of the version you read) 

Example 1 (A book with an estimated date of original publication)

Example 2 (A website) 

• If the original date of publication is an estimate, write ca. before the date. This stands for ‘circa’. 
• Ancient and classic works may not have typical page numbers. To pinpoint a specific piece of information, use the numbering system in the publication when creating an in-text citation. See the guidance on missing information in references.
• If there are multiple editors use ‘Eds.’ (see Example 2). 
• Use the web link when no DOI is available.

Articles (see: Journal articles, Magazine articles, or Newspaper articles)

Artists' book, photobook, or zine with a single author, and self-published

Author, N. (Year). Title . [Format].

Artists' book, photobook, or zine with a single author, and commercially published

Author, N. (Year). Title. [Format]. Publisher .

Example 1 ( Zine with a single author, and self-published )

Sillars, J. (2019).  Euphoriacs: A zine surrounding trans people and our relationships with clothing.  [Zine].

Example 2 ( Artists' book with a single author, and commercially published )

Poulain, D. (2023). Birds.  [Artists' book]. Éditions du livre. 

• The title is in sentence case and in italics.
• Zines and  artists' books  are often self-published. Therefore no publisher name is needed at the end of the reference (see Example 1).

Artist, N. (Year). Artwork title [Type of artwork]. Gallery/Museum or Website Name, Location. https://www.website.com/page    

van Gogh, V. (1889). The starry night [Painting]. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, USA. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/79802

• The artwork title is in sentence case and in italics .
• Describe the item type in square brackets, for example, [Painting], [Oil on canvas], [Sculpture] after the title (see Example).

Author, N. (Year, Month Day). Title of post. Blog Title. https://www.website.com/page  

Winfield, J. (2021, July 8). From clearing to global management internship in China. Coventry University. https://www.coventry.ac.uk/blog/jimmys-clearing-story/  

• Use the full date for the post: (Year, Month Day).  
• The post title is in sentence case .
• The blog title is in title case and in italics .

Cases (see: Law reports)

Author, N. (Year). Chapter title. In N. Editor (Ed.), Book title (pp. x-x). Publisher. https://doi.org/xxxxx  

Example 1 (First edition of a book with a DOI)

Barker, S. (2021). Painting the plague, 1230-1640. In C. Lynteris (Ed.), Plague image and imagination from medieval to modern times (pp. 37-68). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72304-0  

Example 2 (Subsequent edition of a print book with multiple authors and editors)

Perrin, D., & Simpson, D. (2021). Where and how you will learn. In R. Helyer, T. Wall, A. Minton & A. Lund (Eds.), The work-based learning student handbook (3rd ed., pp. 24-44). Bloomsbury Academic. 

• In the in-text citation, use the author(s) of the chapter, not the editor(s). 
• The book title is in sentence case and in italics .
• The edition, where second edition or above, is included in the same brackets as the page numbers (see Example 2).
• Include the page numbers of the whole chapter in the reference, not just the pages you have used.

Online command paper  

Organisation. (Year). Title of the paper (Command paper reference number). https://www.website.com/report  

Print command paper  

Organisation. (Year). Title of the paper (Command paper reference number). Publisher. 

Example 1 (Online command paper)

Department for Energy Security & Net Zero. (2024). Civil nuclear: Roadmap to 2050 (Cp 1009). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/65c0e7cac43191000d1a457d/6.8610_DESNZ_Civil_Nuclear_Roadmap_report_Final_Web.pdf

Example 2 (Print command paper)

Law Commission. (2002). Sharing homes: A discussion paper (Cm 5666). The Stationery Office. 

• The abbreviation used to denote a command paper will change depending on the year of the document. You may see C, Cd, Cmd, Cm, Cp, or Cmnd.
• Use the full publication date if written on the report.

Author, N. (Year, Month Day(s) of the conference). Conference presentation title [Type of presentation]. Conference Name, Location. www.website.com/page  

Motherwell, S., Heeney, C., & Sloan, P. (2023, September 6-8). 'Text me when you get home!' Research on the safety of women and girls on public transport in Scotland [Paper presentation]. European Transport Conference, Milan, Italy. https://www.therrc.co.uk/sites/default/files/files/Conference/2023/Presentations/2_marc_naura.pdf  

• A conference presentation may be in the form of a paper, poster, keynote speech etc.
• Include the full date of the conference (see Example).
• After the title, describe the presentation in square brackets, e.g. [Paper presentation], [Poster presentation], [Keynote speech] (see Example).
• If the presentation has a DOI , use this instead of a web link.
• If the presentation is published in a journal or book, follow the guidance for a journal article or chapter in an edited book.

Confidential documents (see: Unpublished documents)

Published data set  

Author, N. (Year). Title (Numerical identifier; version) [Description]. Publisher. https://doi.org/xxxxx  

Unpublished raw data  

Author, N. (Year). Title [Unpublished raw data]. Source of unpublished data. 

Untitled unpublished raw data

Author, N. (Year). [Description of untitled data]   [Unpublished raw data]. Source of unpublished data. 

Example 1  (Published data set)  

Leland, J. & Kickstarter. (2024).  Kickstarter data, global, 2009-2023 (ICPSR 38050; Version V3) [Data Set]. ICPSR. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR38050.v3  

Example 2 (Unpublished raw data)  

Boole, G. (2024). Librarian biscuit consumption  [Unpublished raw data]. National Centre for Librarians.

Example 3 (Untitled unpublished raw data)  

Dewey, M. (2023). [Correlation between student focus and screen time] [Unpublished raw data]. Coventry University.

• If the data has no title, provide a description of the data in [square brackets] and the title is not in italics (see Example 3).
• The description is flexible e.g., [Data set] or [Data set and code book].
• Version is written in full, followed by the version number.
• If the data set has a DOI , use this instead of a web link.
• If the data is from a report, website, book, or journal, reference that source and not the data set itself.  

Named author  

Author, N. (Year). Entry title. In N. Editor (Ed.), Dictionary or encyclopaedia title (Edition.). Publisher. https://www.website.com/entry  

If no author, use the organisation’s name as the author

Organisation. (Year). Entry title. In Dictionary or encyclopaedia title . https://www.website.com/entry  

dos Santos Leffa, P. (2023). Ultra-processed foods. In B. Caballero (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human nutrition (4th ed.). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821848-8.00009-3

Example 2 (Organisation as the author, with regular updates to the entries)

Oxford English Dictionary. (n.d.). Life admin. In The Oxford English dictionary . Retrieved May 1, 2024, from https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/7327882606

• The title of the entry is in sentence case .  
• The title of the dictionary or encyclopaedia is in sentence case and in italics .
• When a work is continuously updated, include a retrieval date and use ‘n.d.’ for the publication date (see Example 2).

Unpublished dissertation or thesis (available from the awarding institution)

Author, N. (Year). Dissertation or thesis title [Unpublished master’s dissertation or Unpublished doctoral thesis]. Name of University. 

Published dissertation or thesis (available from databases such as EThoS or ProQuest, or Google Scholar)

Author, N. (Year). Dissertation or thesis title [Master’s dissertation or Doctoral dissertation, Name of University]. Database. https://www.database.com/dissertation     

Example 1 (Unpublished dissertation)

Miyamoto, S. (2024). Student perceptions of engagement events in university libraries [Unpublished master's dissertation]. Coventry University. 

Example 2 (Published doctoral thesis)

Benhamou, E. (2019). Genre in contemporary Disney animated features (2008-2016) [Doctoral thesis, University of Bristol]. EThOS. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?did=1&uin=uk.bl.ethos.782581  

• Use square brackets for the dissertation or thesis description. 

Ebooks (see: Books)

Encyclopaedias (see: Dictionaries)

Institutional Origin | Legislation Type | Number | Title 

In-text citation: According to Article 50 of Regulation 2002/178/EC . . . 

• The legislation title is in sentence case and not in italics.
• Do not include a link, even if the legislation is found online.
• In the in-text citation, give the type of legislation and the number.
• It is best practice to use a narrative citation. Avoid putting legislation in brackets (see Example 1b).

Facebook (see: Social Media)

Figures (see: Images)

Director, N. (Director). (Year). Film title [Film]. Production Company. 

Example 1 (Film with two production companies)

Nolan, C. (Director). (2023). Oppenheimer [Film]. Syncopy; Atlas Entertainment. 

Example 2 (Translation of title in square brackets)

Bayona, J. A. (Director). (2023). La sociedad de la nieve [Society of the snow] [Film]. El Arriero Films; Misión de Audaces Films; Netflix. 

• The title is in sentence case and in italics . 
• Separate the production company with a semi-colon where there is more than one company (see Example 1).  
• When the film’s title is in a different language, include a translation of the title in square brackets (see Example 2). 

Author, N. (Year). Title of report (Source type and report number). Organisation. https://www.website.com/report  

If no author, use the organisation’s name as the author 

Organisation. (Year). Title of report (Source type and report number).  https://www.website.com/report  

Example 1 (Command paper)

Department for Work and Pensions. (2024). Modernising support for independent living: The health and disability green paper (Cp 1061). https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/modernising-support-for-independent-living-the-health-and-disability-green-paper/modernising-support-for-independent-living-the-health-and-disability-green-paper   

Example 2 (Library briefing paper with an individual author)

Keep, M. (2024). The Barnett formula and fiscal devolution (House of Commons Library Briefing Paper no. 7386). https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7386/CBP-7386.pdf  

Example 3  (House of Commons paper with a specific department as author. Date written in full)

Example 4  (Briefing paper with an individual author and a government department as the organisation)

Sugars, R. (2024, July 11). Early years strategy. Coventry City Council. https://edemocracy.coventry.gov.uk/documents/s61101/Early%20Years%20Strategy.pdf

• Most government reports are authored by a government department, agency or committee (see Examples 1 and 3).
• If there is a hierarchy of departments listed in a report, use the most specific government department, relevant to the report, as the author.
• If the government department is included in the report number, put this in round brackets after the title (see Example 2).
• For government reports where no department is specified, use the name of the government as the author. For the UK, this will be UK Government. Do not use GOV.UK.
• If there is no source type or report number, leave it out.
• If a publisher is available, include it after the paper number. It is likely to be either HMSO, The Stationery Office or the individual government department.

Graphs (see: Images)

HC/HL Deb vol xx col xx (Year, Month Day). Hansard. https://www.website.com/page  

In-text citation within a sentence: "The UK has driven down emissions by more than 45%" (HC Deb, 2022).

• Use HC Deb for a House of Commons debate, and HL Deb for a House of Lords debate. 

Instagram (see: Social Media)

In-text citations and references are the formatted in the same way for law reports. For further Information see: Neutral citations and law reports

Neutral citation

Case Name(s) [Year] Abbreviation for Court Name | Case Number 

Case Name(s) [(Year)] Volume | Abbreviation for Law Report Name | Page number 

Example 1 (Neutral citation)

Charalambous v Welding [2009] EWCA Civ 1578  

Example 2a (Law report)

Douglas v Hello! Magazine [2001] 2 WLR 992  

Example 2b (Narrative in-text citation)

In Douglas v Hello! Magazine [2001] 2 WLR 992, the Court of Appeal stressed that equal weighting be given to both rights and that any case should be determined by adopting the principles of proportionality. 

Example 2c  (Parenthetical in-text citation)

The Court of Appeal stressed that equal weighting be given to both rights and that any case should be determined by adopting the principles of proportionality ( Douglas v Hello! Magazine [2001] 2 WLR 992). 

Example 2d  (Subsequent in-text citations)

Douglas v Hello! Magazine (2001) 

• The party names are in title case and in italics .
• Use the neutral citation OR law report citation , and copy this directly from the source.
• Copy the style of brackets around the year from the source. If the source uses [square brackets], use them in the in-text citation and reference.  
• Subsequent in-text citations should use (round brackets).
• Do not include a link, even if the case/report is found online.

Leaflets (see: Reports)

Lecturer, N. (Date). Title of lecture [Format]. Website. https://www.website.com/page/  

Torres, M. (2024, March 12). Seven psychological perspectives [PowerPoint slides]. Aula. https://coventry.aula.education/  

• Use the date the lecture was delivered. This could be (Year), (Year, Month) or (Year, Month Day) depending on the information available.
• Describe the format of the document after the title and place in square brackets (e.g., [Presentation], [Word], [Excel]).
• If the hosting site requires a login such as Aula, use the homepage link, not the link to the module page (see Example).

Print magazine

Author, N. (Year, Month Day). Article title. Magazine Title , pages. 

Online magazine

Author, N. (Year, Month Day). Article title. Magazine Title . https://www.website.com/page  

Example 1 (Print magazine)

Taylor, H. (2024, April 26). Is UK inflation still on track? Investors Chronicle , 14-16. 

Example 2 (Online magazine)

Adler, T. (2024, July 25).The United States of pizza. Vogue. https://www.vogue.com/article/united-states-of-pizza-restaurant-guide

• The article title is in sentence case .
• The magazine title is in title case  and in italics .
• If the magazine has a volume and part, follow the format for journal articles.

Traditional maps 

Author, N. (Year). Map title [Map]. Publisher. https://www.website.com/page  

Dynamically created maps  (e.g. Google Maps, Apple Maps) 

Organisation. (n.d.). [Map description in square brackets]. Retrieved Month Day, Year, from https://www.website.com/page  

Example 1 (Traditional map)

Mudge, W. (1801). An entirely new and accurate survey of the county of Kent, with part of the county of Essex [Map]. Board of Ordnance. http://mapco.net/kent1801/kent1801.htm   

Example 2 (Dynamic map)

Google. (n.d.). [Google Maps directions for driving from Coventry University to Stratford-upon-Avon]. Retrieved May 21, 2024, from https://maps.app.goo.gl/r9wcCyc1Lx3YZEeX8   

• The author for dynamically created maps should be the organisation name (e.g. Google), rather than the application name (Google Maps).  
• If the map is dynamically created, use n.d. instead of the year. After the title, give the retrieval date (see Example 2). 
• If there is no clear title (e.g. directions on Google Maps) give a description of the map in square brackets and not in italics (see Example 2). 

Movies (see: Films)

Music score with a composer

Composer, N. (Year). Music score title [Type of score]. Publisher. 

Republished music score with a composer

Composer, N. (Year). Music score title [Type of score]. Publisher. (Original work published Year) 

In-text citation (Republished music score) 

(Composer, Year of the republication/Year originally published) 

Example 1 (Music score with a composer)

Marianelli, D. (2006). Pride and prejudice: Music from the motion picture soundtrack [Musical score]. Wise Publications. 

Example 2 (Republished music score with a composer)

• Specify the type of score in square brackets (e.g., [Musical score], [Piano score], [Vocal score], [Study score]).
• For a republished score, include the year it was republished as the main date of the reference. At the end of reference in round brackets, write the words 'Original work published' and the year of original publication (see Example 2).

Music album

Artist, N. (Year). Album title [Album]. Production Company. 

Artist, N. (Year). Song title [Song]. On Album title . Production Company.

Example 1 (Music album)

Linkin Park. (2003). Meteora [Album]. Warner Bros. 

Example 2 (Song)

Dion, C. (1996). Because you loved me [Song]. On Falling into you . Columbia; Epic. 

• The song title is in sentence case .
• The album title is in sentence case and in italics .
• Include [Album] or [Song] after the album or song title.
• Separate the production company with a semi-colon where there is more than one company (see Example 2).

Author, N. (Year, Month Day). Article title. News Website. https://www.website.com/page  

If no author, use the news website as the author 

News Website. (Year, Month Day). Article title . https://www.website.com/page   

Example 1 (Article with a named author)

Nachiappan, A. (2023, December 20). AI cannot be named as the inventor, Supreme Court rules in patent dispute. Sky News. https://news.sky.com/story/ai-cannot-be-named-as-the-inventor-supreme-court-rules-in-patent-dispute-13034816   

Example 2 (Article without a named author)

BBC News. (2024, May 29). Lost John Lennon guitar sets record at auction . https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cy00eppxk80o   

• The article title is in sentence case and in italics .
• To reference the online version of a newspaper which is also published in print (e.g. The Financial Times) see the Newspaper articles section below.

Plimmer, G., Mooney, A., & Bott, I. (2024, May 8). Holding back the floods for 40 years: Thames Barrier is due an upgrade. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/027a0d94-90f6-4841-94c1-b974ac895adb   

• The newspaper title is in title case and in italics .
• If the newspaper article is in print, not online, use the same format but leave out the link.

Your own work (primary data) does not require citation and referencing if you have not submitted or published it on any platform (e.g. Turnitin) before.  

If you want to include material that you have submitted or published before, check with your lecturer first , and then follow the format below. 

Author, N. (Year). Title [Unpublished name of assignment and module code]. University Name.  

Jones, A. (2024) The pitch presentation [Unpublished assignment submitted for 6016MFH]. Coventry University.  

• The unpublished information is in [square brackets].

Inventor, N. (Year Patent Issued). Patent title (Patent Number). Patent Office. https://www.website.com/page  

Dalgarno, M. R. (2015). Fire resistant ducting systems (GB2517476). UK Intellectual Property Office. https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&II=0&ND=3&adjacent=true&FT=D&date=20150225&CC=GB&NR=2517476A&KC=A#   

• Use the inventor as the author.
• The patent title is in sentence case and in italics .

A PDF is a file format rather than a source type and there are no specific APA guidelines. Instead, identify the source type, whether a report, journal article, leaflet, etc. and follow the guidance for that source.

Personal communications include emails, interviews, phone calls and unrecorded lectures. Where these have been published (e.g. an interview published in a magazine) follow the referencing guidelines for that type of resource.

Personal communications are only referenced using in-text citations. You do not give an entry in the list of references, as the information has not been published anywhere for you to reference.

Narrative citation  

N. Author (personal communication, Month Day, Year) 

Parenthetical citation  

(N. Author, personal communication, Month Day, Year) 

Example 1 (Narrative citation)

J. Clewes (personal communication, May 3, 2024) suggested that… 

Example 2 (Parenthetical citation)

(K. Dodhia, personal communication, June 15, 2024) 

• Authors’ names are formatted with the initial(s) of their given name(s), a full stop, and then their family name/surname. 
• If you interviewed someone as part of your data collection for your own primary research, you do not need to provide an in-text citation. 

Photobooks (see: Artists’ books)

To reference a photograph, you must first identify where the photograph has come from, and its intended use in your assignment.

• Photograph from another source (book, journal article, website): see Images
• Photograph from social media (Instagram, X etc.): see Social media
• Photograph in an art gallery or museum: see Artwork in a gallery or museum
• Photograph you have taken yourself: see Images
• Photographs used to decorate your work, rather than to demonstrate a point: see Images in presentations, posters and artistic assignments.

A whole podcast series

Host, N. (Host). (Year-Year). Podcast title [Audio podcast]. Production Company. https://www.website.com/page   

A specific episode

Host, N. (Host). (Year, Month Day). Episode title (No. x) [Audio podcast episode]. In Podcast title . Production Company. https://www.website.com/page   

Example 1 (A whole podcast series)

Rachman, G. (Host). (2019–present). Rachman review [Audio podcast]. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/rachman-review  

Example 2 (A specific episode)

Campbell, A., & Stewart, R. (Hosts). (2024, April 10). What Britain really thinks of politics (No. 253) [Audio podcast episode]. In The rest is politics. Goalhanger Podcasts. https://podcasts.apple.com/gb/podcast/what-britain-really-thinks-of-politics/id1611374685?i=1000651929901   

• The episode title is in sentence case .
• The whole podcast title is in sentence case and in italics .
• If the host is unclear, give the executive producers as the authors and write (Executive producers) after their names.
• If you do not have a link (e.g. because you have listened to the podcast through an app), leave it out.
• If the podcast episodes do not use numbers, leave it out.

Presentations (see: Lectures or Conference papers and presentations)

Presenter, N. (Year, Month Day). Title [Radio broadcast]. Radio Station. https://www.website.com/page  

Razzle, K. (2024, May 29). The media show: Is this the TikTok election? [Radio broadcast]. BBC Radio 4. https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m001zngb   

• Give the radio presenter (host) as the author. If the presenter is not obvious, give the executive producer as the author.
• If you do not have a link (e.g. because you have listened live or through an app), leave it out.

Religious work read in a book   

Title (N. Translator, Trans.; Edition). (Year). Publisher.  

Religious work read on a website 

Title . (Year). Website Name. https://www.website.com/page (Original work published Year) 

Title (Year of original publication/Year of the version you read)  

( Title , Year of original publication/Year of the version you read) 

Example 1 (Religious work read in a book, including a translator and edition)

In-text citation: ( The Bhagavad Gita , 2007) or The Bhagavad Gita (2007) discusses . . .

Example 2 (Religious work read on a website, including an original published date)

In-text citation: ( King James Bible , 1769/2017) or King James Bible (1769/2017) states . . .

• Religious works are usually treated as having no author. Use the title as the author in both the in-text citation and reference. In the in-text citation, the title should remain in italics .
• The title is in title case and in italics .
• If there is no edition, or original published date, leave it out.

Author, N. [Username]. (Year, Month Day). Title or first 20 words of post [Type of post]. Social Media Site. www.socialmedia.com/user/post   

Example 1 (Instagram photo)

National Geographic [@natgeo]. (2020, December 10). A 1912 replica of West Virginia's Stonewall Jackson has recently been removed at the Virginia Military Institute [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/CImHuqcMJUL/   

Example 2 (X post with image attached)

Paralympic Games [@paralympics]. (2024, April 1). It's our #ParaCanoe sports week! Get to know more about this Para sport as we head into the @Paris2024 Paralympic [Image attached] [Post]. X. https://twitter.com/Paralympics/status/1774776204903469364  

Example 3  (TikTok video)

Coventry University Library [@covunilibrary]. (2024, March 7). Today is World Book Day and we just want you to read a book! 📚💛💙 It doesn't matter [Video]. TikTok. https://www.tiktok.com/@covunilibrary/video/7343537583827275041  

Example 4  (A whole profile)

Swift, T. [@taylorswift]. (n.d.). Posts [Instagram profile]. Instagram. Retrieved June 9, 2024, from https://www.instagram.com/taylorswift  

• For the author, use the profile name followed by the username in [square brackets]. 
• Use the caption/text of the post as the title. Only use the first 20 words of the post as the title (see Example 3). 
• The title is in whichever case is used in the post and in italics . Emojis should not be in italics. 
• Each emoji is counted as one word.

When to reference software

You do not need to reference software if it is commonly used in your field (e.g. Microsoft Word or SPSS) unless you have quoted or paraphrased from the software. You also do not need to reference programming languages (e.g. Python or C#). Just state the name of the software or programming language in your assignment. If a piece of software is not in common use, or if you have quoted or paraphrased from it, include a reference.

Console games 

APA 7th edition provides guidance for referencing computer software and mobile apps, but does not cover console games. If you need to reference a video game, particularly if it is available across multiple consoles, you may need to adapt the format below to make it clear which version you have used.

Author, N. (Year). Title of software (Version number) [Type of software]. Publisher. https://www.website.com/app  

Example 1 (Computer software)

Barone, E. (2024). Stardew Valley (Version 1.6.8) [Computer software]. ConcernedApe. https://store.steampowered.com/app/413150/Stardew_Valley/    

Example 2 (Mobile app)

Nintendo. (2020). Animal crossing: Pocket camp (Version 3.2.0) [Mobile app]. Google Play Store. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.nintendo.zaca&hl=en_GB    

• Version in brackets, e.g. (Version 1.0).
• Type of software in square brackets, e.g. [Computer software] or [Mobile app].

Organisation. (Year). Standard title (Standard number). Publisher. https://www.website.com/standard  

British Standards Institution. (2022). Project, programme and portfolio management. Guidance on programme management (BS ISO 21503:2022). British Standards Institution. https://bsol.bsigroup.com/Bibliographic/BibliographicInfoData/000000000030437073

• The standard number is in brackets.

Title Year, SI Year/Number 

Subsequent in-text citation: Regulation 4 of SI 2013/2996 states that . . . 

• The title is in title case and not in italics.   
• Do not include a link, even if the statutory instrument is found online.
• It is best practice to use a narrative citation. Avoid putting statutory instruments in brackets (see Example 1b).
• For subsequent in-text citations, use just the SI Year/Number (see Example 1c).

(Table produced using your own data)

(Table produced using your own data)

Heading Heading Item Data Data Item Data Data Item Data Data Add any notes to explain the table here (optional) Favourite Biscuits of Coventry University Librarians   5 7 4 3 3 1 (Table reproduced from another source) (Table reproduced using information from a website)   Heading Heading Item Data Data Item Data Data Item Data Data From Author (year, p. x) or Author (year) OR Adapted from Author (year, p. x) or Author (year) Diabetes Registrations by Age Group in England 2023-24   45 4.6 39.7 44.1 15.2 51.3 Adapted from NHS Digital (2024) Format 3 (Table created from multiple sources) There are several ways to reference a table when using multiple sources: Describe the sources for each section underneath the table when the information can be easily separated (see Example 3a). Include in-text citations within the body of the table itself, following the normal in-text citation rules (see Example 3b). Use specific notes when impractical to include an in-text citation within the body of the table. Specific notes are superscript letters (  a , b ,  c ) to indicate that the information is taken from another source. The superscript letters are then repeated underneath the table, with the corresponding in-text citation (see Example 3c). If different pieces of information are taken from the same source, use the same letter and include only one in-text citation underneath the table (see Example 3c). (Table created from multiple sources) (Table created from multiple sources)   Heading Heading Item Data Data Item Data Data Item Data Data Data in column 2 from Author (year, p. x) Data in column 3 from Author (year, p. x) Population in 2023 and Projected Population by 2050   223.8m 377.4m 126.5m 214.8m 112.7m 160.3m Data in column 2 from Statistia (2023) Data in column 3 from World Health Organization (2024) (In-text citations in the table itself)  (In-text citations in the table itself)   Heading Heading Item Data (Author, year, p. x) Data (Author, year, p. x) Item Data (Author, year, p. x) Data (Author, year, p. x) A Comparison of Views About Cats and Dogs     Cat people appreciate the independent nature of cats (Catarall, 2020, p. 53).    Wolf (2021) suggests that cats may not be as affectionate as dogs (p. 77).   Catarall (2022) argues that dogs need too much attention from their owners (p. 4). Dog people consider dogs to be ‘man’s best friend’ (Barker, 2022, p. 28).   (Superscript notes in the table) (Superscript notes in the table)   Heading Heading Item Data Data Item Data Data a From Author (year, p. x) b From Author (year, p. x) c From Author (year, p. x) Average Live Viewership of Olympic Opening Ceremonies    23.02m 2.5m 2.5m 2.7m a From Plunkett (2012) b From Coster (2021) c From Bulbeck (2012) The table number is in bold. Number your tables based on their order within your assignment. Regarding the number of authors (use of et al.) and page numbers, follow the normal in-text citation rules. If you have created the table yourself (and not adapted it using information found in another source), you do not need an in-text citation under the table (see Example 1). Include a reference list entry for the type of source you have taken the table and/or contents from. Theses (see: Dissertations) A whole TV series Producer, N. (Executive Producer). (Year-Year). Series title [TV series]. Production Company.  Writer, N. (Writer & Director). (Year, Month Day). Title of episode (Season 1, Episode 1) [TV series episode]. In N. Producer (Executive Producers), Series title . Production Company.   Example 1 (A whole TV series) Schur, M., Miner, D., Sackett, M., & Goddard, D. (Executive Producers). (2016-2020). The good place [TV series]. Fremulon; 3 Arts Entertainment; Universal Television.   Levy, D. (Writer), & Canning, J. (Director). (2020, March 31). Start spreading the news (Season 6, Episode 13) [TV series episode]. In E. Levy, D. Levy, F. Levy, A. Barnsley, B. Feigin & D. West Read (Executive Producers), Schitt’s creek . Not A Real Company Productions; Canadian Broadcasting Company.    The TV series title is in sentence case and in italics . The episode title is in sentence case. For a whole TV series, state the year or years the series first aired in brackets (See Example 1). If the TV series is still airing, use 'present' as the second date, e.g. (2010-present). For a specific episode, state the date the episode first aired in brackets (See Example 2). Separate the production company with a semi-colon where there is more than one company (see Example 1 and 2). APA does not have official guidance for unpublished documents. If you need to reference an unpublished document, please follow the format below. Confidential documents are private or commercially sensitive information, such as patient health records or details of a supplier contract, where disclosure of identity is prohibited by law or the owner of the information. Internal documents contain information relevant to an organisation. These may or may not be confidential. Talk to your lecturer if you are unsure about confidentiality in your assignment.  It may sometimes be appropriate to add an anonymised extract of the document to an appendix to provide context for the reader. Unpublished confidential documents    Anonymised author. (Year). Title [Unpublished document]. Unpublished internal documents Author. (Year). Title [Unpublished document]. Department, Company.  Example 1 (Unpublished confidential document) Company A. (2023). [Company A’s] procurement strategy 2023-2028 [Unpublished document].  Example 2 (Unpublished confidential document with descriptive title) NHS Trust. (2022). [Document detailing patient data breach] [Unpublished document]. NHS England.  Example 3  (Unpublished internal document) Vaughan, P. (2024).  Collection development strategy [Unpublished document]. Lanchester Library, Coventry University.  Anonymise part or all of the title where the title will reveal the identity of the organisation. Place the anonymised part of the title in [square brackets] (see Example 1) or use a descriptive title in [square brackets] to anonymise the whole title and then this title will not be in italics (see Example 2). If an internal document has no author, use the department as the author and do not repeat this later in the reference. Videos on a video sharing platform (YouTube, Vimeo etc.) Uploader. (Year, Month Day). Video title [Video]. Video Platform. https://www.website.com/video   Videos on social media (TikTok, Instagram, X etc.) Author, N. [Username]. (Year, Month Day). Title or first 20 words of post [Video]. Social Media Site. https://www.socialmedia.com/user/post   Example 1 (Videos on a video sharing platform) TED. (2024, February 5).  How babies think about danger | Shari Liu | TED [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6djPLVa9aQ4     Example 2 (Videos on social media) The video title is in sentence case and in italics. For YouTube videos or similar, the name of the uploader/channel will likely be the author (see Example 1). For videos on social media, the author is the profile name followed by the username in [square brackets] (see Example 2). Authors can also be formatted in the way that best helps to identify them e.g. Johnson, D. [The Rock]. If the speaker in the video is not the same as the uploader, integrate this into your sentence e.g. Liu discusses how babies perceive danger (TED, 2024). White papers (see: Command papers) X (see: Social Media) YouTube (see: Videos) Zines (see: Artists’ books) Need More Help? Ask us on LiveChat   Book a 1-1 Appointment   Contact your Librarian   Consult the APA manual   Visit the APA Style Blog   APA Quick Referencing Guide Quick guide to help you get started. Refer to these web pages for more detailed reference information. Printable APA Quick Guide Download this essay to see an example how to use the APA referencing style in assignments. Example of essay using APA << Previous: Introduction to Referencing Next: FAQs >> Last Updated: Sep 13, 2024 8:16 AM URL: https://libguides.coventry.ac.uk/APAReferencing Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. View all journals Explore content About the journal Publish with us Sign up for alerts Open access Published: 12 September 2024 A Late Devonian coelacanth reconfigures actinistian phylogeny, disparity, and evolutionary dynamics Alice M. Clement   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0380-7347 1   na1 , Richard Cloutier   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5780-3304 1 , 2 , 3   na1 , Michael S. Y. Lee 1 , 4 , Benedict King 5 , Olivia Vanhaesebroucke 2 , Corey J. A. Bradshaw   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5328-7741 6 , Hugo Dutel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1908-5150 7 , Kate Trinajstic   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6519-6396 8 , 9 & John A. Long   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8012-0114 1 , 9   na1   Nature Communications volume  15 , Article number:  7529 ( 2024 ) Cite this article 141 Altmetric Metrics details Evolutionary ecology Ichthyology Palaeontology The living coelacanth Latimeria (Sarcopterygii: Actinistia) is an iconic, so-called ‘living fossil’ within one of the most apparently morphologically conservative vertebrate groups. We describe a new, 3-D preserved coelacanth from the Late Devonian Gogo Formation in Western Australia. We assemble a comprehensive analysis of the group to assess the phylogeny, evolutionary rates, and morphological disparity of all coelacanths. We reveal a major shift in morphological disparity between Devonian and post-Devonian coelacanths. The newly described fossil fish fills a critical transitional stage in coelacanth disparity and evolution. Since the mid-Cretaceous, discrete character changes (representing major morphological innovations) have essentially ceased, while meristic and continuous characters have continued to evolve within coelacanths. Considering a range of putative environmental drivers, tectonic activity best explains variation in the rates of coelacanth evolution. Similar content being viewed by others Sustained high rates of morphological evolution during the rise of tetrapods A Late Devonian actinopterygian suggests high lineage survivorship across the end-Devonian mass extinction Giant Mesozoic coelacanths (Osteichthyes, Actinistia) reveal high body size disparity decoupled from taxic diversity Introduction. Coelacanths are evolutionarily unique, lobe-finned fishes that first appeared in the fossil record in the Lower Devonian Period (late Lochkovian, ~ 419–411 million years ago [Ma]) 1 , with over 175 fossil taxa described throughout the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic eras. Since the discovery of Latimeria chalumnae by Western scientists in 1938, the phylogenetic relationships among coelacanths have been investigated in more than 20 studies (see Supplementary Text for full list). In most analyses, a good congruence exists between the phylogeny and the stratigraphic record. Coelacanths are considered to be morphologically conservative in terms of body plan 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 and they achieved a peak of diversity during the Triassic 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 . Meanwhile, rates of morphological evolution have been examined stratophenetically 12 and phylogenetically 3 , 9 , 13 , indicating that there was an early burst of evolution during the Devonian followed by a precipitous decrease and then a steady, low rate of morphological evolution. However, no driver has ever been proposed to explain these distinctive evolutionary dynamics of coelacanths, nor has their status as ‘living fossils’ been quantitatively evaluated. Devonian coelacanth material is rare, representing only a small component of the ~175 fossil coelacanth species—there are only 20 known taxa, about half of which are too incomplete to describe formally. Their earliest fossils (Early Devonian) are known from mostly isolated bones from the late Lochkovian and Pragian of China 1 , 14 and the mid–late Pragian of Australia 15 . Most Devonian coelacanths are rare and fragmentary, except for the middle Frasnian Miguashaia bureaui from eastern Canada 16 , 17 , and the late Famennian Serenichthys kowiensis 18 based on juvenile specimens from South Africa. Until now, Diplocercides kayseri 19 from Gerolstein in Germany is the only Devonian coelacanth known from three dimensions (3-D) and revealing part of the neurocranium, but it has since been destroyed by serial grinding. The material presented here, comprising two specimens (Fig.  1 ), represents the first-known coelacanth from the Late Devonian Gogo Formation of Australia 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 . Exceptional 3-D preservation of our specimens facilitates rare insight into the neurocranial, branchial, and palaeoneurological conditions of the group. These data also allow us to re-evaluate the phylogeny and phenotypic evolution of all coelacanths in detail, using an expanded character matrix, as well as the first geometric morphometric study of the group to our knowledge, and an analysis of putative drivers of evolutionary rates. Along with this description, such an expansive time series of detailed evolutionary patterns for a single taxon extending right up to the present offers an opportunity to determine the global processes steering evolution more generally. A, B ‘Part a’ of WAM 09.6.148 (holotype) shown in left dorsolateral view and skull close up in left lateral view. C ‘Part b’ of WAM 09.6.148 (holotype) showing all exposed elements; D partial braincase of NMV P231504 (paratype) shown in right lateral view; E cleithrum of NMV P231504 (paratype) in mesial and lateral view; F , G skull reconstruction in dorsal and left lateral view. Abbreviations: Ang angular, Cl cleithrum, Clv clavicle, Dt dentary, Exc extracleithrum, icj intracranial joint, ioc infraorbital canal, L.Gu lateral gular, Lj lachrymojugal, mc mandibular canal, L.Ex lateral extrascapular, Op operculum, Par Parietal, Po postorbital, Pop preoperculum, Pp postparietal, Pmx premaxilla, Psym parasymphysial, Q quadrate, Ro.p1 anterior pore of the rostral organ, Ro.p2 antero-lateral pore of the rostral organ, Ro.p3 postero-lateral pore of the rostral organ, So supraorbitals, soc supraorbital canal, Sop Suboperculum, Spl splenial, Sq squamosal. Systematic palaeontology Osteichthyes Huxley 1880 Sarcopterygii Romer 1955 Actinistia Cope 1871 Ngamugawi wirngarri gen. et sp. nov. Generic name meaning “ancient fish” in Gooniyandi/Guniyandi, language of the First Nations people from Country around Fitzroy Crossing in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Specific name is given in honour of respected Gooniyandi elder and ancestor Wirngarri, who lived in the Emanuel Range. Generic and specific names were both provided to Prof. John Long in September 2023, who has a longstanding and ongoing relationship with the community, with permissions to use the language granted by elder Rosemary Nuggett, on behalf of the Gooniyandi people of the Mimbi community. The holotype (WAM 09.6.148; Figs.  1 , 2 ) is a small but mostly complete skull (measuring just over 2 cm in length) with all dermal skull bones, an intact neurocranium, gill-arch skeleton, and pectoral girdle preserved in close articulation. The anterior section of the body is also present comprising many scales and vertebral arch elements, but the pectoral fin and its endoskeleton are missing. A–D ‘Part a’ of WAM 09.6.148 (holotype) shown in two views; E–G cranial endocast reconstruction from WAM 09.6.148 in dorsal, ventral and left lateral view; H – J partial braincase of NMV P231504 (paratype) shown in left lateral, posterior and ventral views; K–N left mandible of WAM 09.6.148 (holotype) shown in left lateral, medial/mesial, dorsal and ventral views. Abbreviations: Ang Angular, ant.scc anterior semicircular canal, Bb basibranchial, Bpt Basipterygoid process, Cb ceratobranchial Cor coronoids, Dt dentary, end canals for endolymphatic ducts, Enpt entopterygoid EthSph ethmosphenoid, hf hypophysis, ica canal for internal carotid artery, lat.scc lateral semicircular canal, L.Gu lateral gular, Lj lachrymojugal, n.I-VII cranial nerves I to VII, Mand mandible, nc nasal capsule, nc notochordal canal, Op operculum, OtOcc otico-occipital, Pa parietal, Po postorbital, Pop preoperculum, Pp postparietal, post.scc posterior semicircular canal, PQ palatoquadrate, pr.a antotic process, pr.c processes connectens, Psph parasphenoid, Psym parasymphysial, pv canal for pituitary vein, ro rostral organ, sacc sacculus, Spl Splenial, Sq squamosal, soph canal for superficial ophthalmic nerve. All CT data and models are available via:  www.morphosource.org/projects/000485769?locale=en . Referred material The paratype (NMV P231504; Figs.  1 , 2 ) contains associated elements comprising two cleithra, the ventral portion of the basisphenoid and parasphenoid, and several isolated scales. Locality and horizon Canning Basin, in northern Western Australia, circa 100 km southeast of Fitzroy Crossing; Gogo Formation, early Frasnian, Late Devonian (~384–382 Ma). The holotype was found between Stromatoporoid Camp and Longs Well, the paratype was found in Paddys Valley (see map of Gogo fossil localities in figure 1 within ref. 23 ). Ngamugawi wirngarri gen. et sp. nov. is distinguished from all other coelacanths by the following apomorphies: jugal canal with prominent branches; large sensory pore openings between supraorbitals and parietals; teeth on parasymphysial tooth plate, but not on the dentary; prearticular and/or coronoid teeth rounded; cleithra and extracleithra with broad triangular anteroventral overlap for clavicle bearing a large ventral foramen; and scales with long ornamental ridges extending beyond the posterior margin of the base (Figs.  1 , 2 , Supplementary Fig.  1 ). This published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in ZooBank, the proposed online registration system for the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The ZooBank LSIDs (Life Science Identifiers) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the LSID to the prefix “ http://zoobank.org/ ”. The LSIDs for this publication are: B2B4AA94-E9A5-4D05-9724-CBE5B54760EA; 567A96D6-654A-4201-BFDB-0D81BBBF6226. Description The holotype (WAM 09.6.148) was fossilised in an inter-reef palaeoenvironment with the dorsal surface of the skull roof in contact with the substrate, so that during decay the lower jaws and some cheek elements disarticulated, resting anterior to the skull, while the snout has collapsed inwards. The main block (part A) contains the complete skull including neurocranium, left mandible, cheek, pectoral girdle, and branchial elements, while the counterpart (block B) includes the parasphenoid and right-side mandibular ramus, operculum, entopterygoid, as well as a complete set of branchial arches. The specimen lacks the posterior portion of the body. The well-preserved skull roof is ornamented with enamel-capped tubercles. The well-developed dorsal lamina of the premaxilla is pierced by a single large opening for the anterior tube of the rostral organ, which is diagnostic for coelacanths. There are paired parietals and postparietals partially fused in their anterior half, preparietals, and no pineal opening (Figs.  1 , 2 ). The parietals and postparietals are approximately equidimensional in length each about 10 mm long (parietal length ÷ postparietal length = 0.8252; mean = 0.7824, n  = 47 coelacanth species). The parietal/postparietal ratio varies greatly among Devonian coelacanths: ranging from 0.38 for Diplocercides kayseri 26 , 0.51 for Serenichthys kowiensis 18 , to 0.70 for Miguashaia bureaui 17 . The preorbital, orbital, and postorbital regions of the ethmoidal shield (parietonasal shield) make up 48%, 34%, and 18% of the total length of the shield, respectively, consistent with the proportions of “anatomically modern coelacanths” sensu Zhu et al. 14 with elongate preorbital and orbital regions. There are six or seven supraorbitals preserved as in D. kayseri 26 ; the posteriormost supraorbital corresponds most likely to a fusion of two or three elements. The supraorbital sensory canal passes through the sutures between the supraorbitals and the parietals, with 7–8 large pores opening through the skull roof highlighting its lyre-shaped course (Fig.  1 ). Narrow tabulars are fused to the postparietals. Similar to other Devonian coelacanths (e.g., Gavinia, Miguashaia, Diplocercides ), the cheek region of Ngamugawi is long compared to post-Devonian coelacanths. The postorbital, squamosal, preopercular, and lachrymojugal bones are arranged as in D. kayseri 9 , 27 and Serenichthys 18 in having the squamosal and preoperculum set atop one another, the postorbital farther anteriorly, and an elbow-shaped lachrymojugal expanded ventrally and bearing large, medial sensory pores as in D. kayseri . The sub-oval postorbital has a short orbital margin and bears six infraorbital sensory canal pores. Unlike the condition in Serenichthys, Gavinia , and post-Devonian coelacanths, whereby the postorbital anterior margin is long and curved to fit behind the orbit, in Ngamugawi the orbital margin is short as in D. heiligenstockiensis 27 and M. bureaui 17 . The squamosal is sub-triangular and bears a vertical cheek pit line posteroventrally, and pores for the jugal and preopercular sensory canals. The preoperculum is trapezoidal, with four or five large pores of the preopercular canal, and abuts the squamosal ventrally, yet is separated from the lachrymojugal. The operculum bears a distinctive, strong ridge running anteroposteriorly through the bone, with a series of associated foramina likely to be the “epibranchial line” of Northcutt 28 as in M. bureaui 17 . The lower jaw of Ngamugawi is distinctive, with a long dentary (40% of the mandible length), a long splenial, a unique arrangement of coronoids, and lacking a dentary sensory pore (Fig.  2K–N ). The dentary is unusually long compared to most other coelacanths (35% of the mandible length), but similar to the proportion of the dentary observed in the most primitive coelacanth Styloichthys (50%) as well as some Carboniferous taxa (e.g., Rhabdoderma elegans 40%; Caridosuctor populosum 43%; Allenypterus montanus 42%). Unique among coelacanths, Ngamugawi has a large, denticulated (not ‘toothed’, nor bearing ‘pointed teeth’) bone sutured medially to the dentary, which we interpret as a parasymphysial bone (Fig.  1G ). Enlarged parasymphysials are also found in onychodontids and porolepiforms, so we propose that the specific position and elongation of this bone is a sarcopterygian synapomophy. There are three equidimensional coronoids, and an additional, enlarged principal coronoid. The angular bears an oral pit-line in its anterior half and some large sensory pores along its ventral margin. The prearticular bone lacks elongate ridges in its ventral portion. The glenoid fossa has a single posterodorsally facing facet, and the Meckelian bone bears an articulation point for the symplectic posteriorly. The left lateral gular is long and flat, only slightly shorter than the mandible as in most coelacanths. It has a small pit-line located posterior to the centre of the bone as in D. heiligenstockensis 29 and Chagrinia enodis 30 . The braincase of Ngamugawi is exceptionally well-preserved in 3-D (Figs.  1 B, D, 2A–D , H–J), and is the best-preserved braincase known for a Palaeozoic coelacanth. Much of the braincase is well-ossified, preserving most of the ethmosphenoid and otico-occipital, with the unossified areas of the braincase where cartilage prevailed precisely matching the same regions of cartilage formation in Latimeria 31 . The braincase, cranial endocast, and palate bears many similarities to that of D. kayseri 32 . The interorbital cartilage is ossified. The processus connectens extends to the level of the antotic process and does not meet the parasphenoid. The antotic processes are large and teardrop-shaped, whereas the basipterygoid processes are smaller and knob-like. The occipital area appears to have been less-ossified than more anterior portions and might have been cartilaginous as in Latimeria 33 . The posterolateral wall of the otico-occipital bears a distinct, short otic process not seen in any other coelacanth, nor sarcopterygian. Two endolymphatic ducts face dorsally, opening through the endoskeletal cranial roof (Fig.  2E ). The parasphenoid forms an elongate ‘spatulate’ outline as in Diplocercides 17 , 34 , with a gently rounded anterior margin and covered in a denticle field that ends abruptly posterior to the internal carotid foramen (Supplementary Fig.  2E–H ). The parasphenoid is medially concave with an open buccohypophyseal canal. The entopterygoids are sub-triangular with a broad posterior flange as in other coelacanths. They are smooth laterally but ridged across most of their palatal surface. The nasal capsules are shallow and rounded, situated in line with the cranial cavity as in many sarcopterygians (contra Latimeria ). The general proportions of the rostral organ can be reconstructed from the position of the pore openings and by comparison with that of Latimeria 33 (Fig.  2E–G ). The olfactory tracts seemingly travelled through the large common anterior section of the endocranial cavity, rather than via separate olfactory tracts as in dipnomorphs and tetrapodomorphs. Canals for the optic nerves (n.II), oculomotor nerves (n.III), and trochlear nerves (n.IV) all exit the cranial cavity laterally. Those of the trochlear nerves travel just over a millimetre anterolaterally before meeting the superficial ophthalmic canals. The hypophysial fossa is short compared to that of juvenile and adult Latimeria specimens 33 . It extends anteroventrally as in that taxon but lacks an obvious posterior lobe as in Diplocercides kayseri 32 . There is no evidence of pineal or parapineal recesses. The endocast is narrow in the ethmosphenoid region but broadens from the level of the intracranial joint to reach its maximum width anterior to the labyrinths (Fig.  2E–G ). Posterior to this, a large canal for the facial nerve (n.VII) exits the braincase laterally before splitting into three branches, and a canal for the auditory nerve (n.VIII) leads into the labyrinths. The inner-ear region and the posterior portion of the endocast are more poorly ossified and were likely cartilaginous as in Latimeria 33 . Two long, open endolymphatic ducts are situated at the posterior of the skull roof. Anterior and posterior semicircular canals are preserved on the right-hand side of the specimen, and portions of the external semicircular canal and the sacculus are preserved on the left (Fig.  2E–G ). The labyrinth region shows a large ampulla on the anterior semicircular canal, but the condition for the other two is unknown. The sacculus appears to have been large and deep as in Diplocercides , with the sinus superior not projecting above the cranial cavity dorsally. Ngamugawi contains the best-preserved visceral skeleton of any Palaeozoic coelacanth (Supplementary Fig.  1G, H ). While most of the visceral skeleton is preserved as a thin, ossified perichondral layer, we note an ossified hyomandibular is absent; we consider this due to it being cartilaginous as in Latimeria . The anterior end of the urohyal forms a single point, but the posterior bifurcation of the urohyal is pronounced as in most coelacanths. The single basibranchial has parallel lateral margins, and the ceratohyal is long and narrow. Five ceratobranchials are strongly curved and expanded proximally, while the epibranchials are triradiate, rod-like elements similar to those of Latimeria chalumnae . Within the pectoral girdle, the cleithrum, extracleithrum, and clavicle form a prominent postbranchial lamina (Fig.  1E, G ; Supplementary Fig.  1I ). The cleithra are rounded dorsally, bear a ridged ornament, have a distinct anterior grove for the articulation of the operculum, and are partially fused with the broad extracleithrum (a synapomorphy of coelacanths). There is a broad, triangular anteroventral overlap between the extracleithrum and the clavicle. A large foramen lies on the visceral surface on the smooth overlap area for the clavicle lateral surface. The triangular clavicle is short as in Miguashaia . The sigmoid anocleithrum bears no ornament and has an anteriorly-pointed tip with an articular facet. The scales are either teardrop-shaped, similar to Lualabaea or Caridosuctor 35 , or ovate, with a longitudinal, ridged enamel ornament. The spiny apices of the thicker ridges protrude from the posterior margin of the scales (Supplementary Fig.  1D ); this feature seems to be unique to Ngamugawi among coelacanths. Lateral line scales have large pore openings. There are no bumps on the inner surface of the scales as for Miguashaia 17 , 35 . Although the two specimens are small, they likely represent adults based on the presence of many fusions between bones, the degree of ossification of the branchial elements, and the degree of development of the scales. Phylogenetic and Evolutionary Analyses First, we evaluated the phylogenetic position of Ngamugawi wirngarri gen. et sp. nov. via Bayesian inference and maximum parsimony using an exhaustive and greatly expanded data matrix of 87 species (82 coelacanths and 5 onychodontiform outgroups) coded for 322 total characters (268 discrete, 14 meristic, and 40 continuous — see Supplementary Text for detailed description of all characters and analyses and Supplementary Fig.  3 for the position of the 88 landmarks for the 40 continuous characters). These matrices combine characters from 16 previous analyses including Forey’s 9 classic matrix (some original characters have been deleted, split, or redefined; Forey’s matrix has been used in 20 analyses so far), in addition to 85 new characters. Autapomorphies (unique characters of terminal taxa) have been scored and coded. We double-checked all characters for each taxon, validating or invalidating previous coding. Both Bayesian inference (Fig.  3 ) and maximum parsimony (Supplementary Fig.  6 ) recover broadly congruent topologies: Ngamugawi is recovered as sister taxon to Gavinia , crownward of Miguashaia spp. and Holopterygius , and basal to Diplocercides and Serenichthys. Styloichthys is sister taxon to all other coelacanths. Ngamugawi wirngarri gen. et sp. nov., shown in enlarged black text. Each branch is coloured according to median rate of morphological evolution of discrete characters under the uncorrelated lognormal relaxed clock (details in Fig.  4 ). Numbers at branches refer to posterior probability. Identification of, and credit for, the coelacanth silhouettes is provided in Supplementary Fig.  4 . Bayesian tip-dating revealed a striking uncoupling between rates of evolution of discrete, meristic, and continuous character types. The uncorrelated log-normal clock (which allowed all branches to have separate rates: Fig.  4 ) and the epoch clock (which constrained rates to be the same within time slices: Supplementary Fig.  6 ) retrieved similar patterns. We found that coelacanths experienced a rapid burst of morphological evolution with the highest rates occurring early in their history during the Devonian Period, but these rates then slowed substantially (with rare exceptions). Discrete characters, which often reflect evolutionary innovations, virtually stopped evolving after the Cretaceous (Fig.  4D ); the substitution tree reveals Latimeria has undergone no more anagenesis than Cretaceous relatives, i.e. for discrete characters, it has indeed been frozen in evolutionary time. In contrast, meristic and continuous characters, which often reflect changes in proportions, have continued to evolve at typical Mesozoic rates (Fig.  4E-F ). There are other instances of uncoupled rates of evolution for different character types: Holopterygius and Allenypterus exhibit fast rates for continuous and meristic changes, but unremarkable rates for discrete characters. These are explicable, e.g., Holopterygius and Allenypterus are unusually shaped coelacanths, but have retained most typical coelacanth traits. Rates of evolution through time for A discrete, B meristic, and C continuous characters; each plot shows the duration and rate for every branch in the MCMC tree sample. Median rates for each branch for D discrete, E meristic, and F continuous characters; taxon labels for trees are as in Fig.  3 . Due to constraints in BEAST2, absolute rates of change are shown for discrete characters, but relative rates (weighted average =1) shown for meristic and continuous characters. In A – C , fuzzy plots depict branch rates in 1000 MCMC tree samples (8000 post-burnin trees, thinned by factor of 8); box and whisker plots depict interquartile (50%) and range for the average rate in each sample for the relevant geological period. In D – F , branch rates are median rates for 8000 post-burnin trees. Next, we constructed a resampled boosted regression tree analysis to identify the relative contribution of five putative palaeoenvironmental drivers to rates of coelacanth evolution: namely, subduction flux; continental flooded area (incorporating percentage of shallow sea); sea surface temperature; atmospheric CO 2 ; and dissolved O 2 , (see Supplementary Information  3a ) (Fig.  5 ). We used a combined rate of evolution, considering the discrete, meristic, and continuous characters, for each species (i.e., the rate associated exclusively to the species on the leading phylogenetic branch). The resampled final trees had high coefficients of variation (a measure of goodness of fit) ranging from 48% to 91%. Of the putative environmental drivers considered, the influence of subduction flux (a proxy of tectonic activity) was the most strongly associated environmental measure to the rate of evolution (median relative influence = 36%; range = 13–60%) — thus, indicating that coelacanth species evolved more rapidly during periods of higher global tectonic activity (Fig.  5B ), suggesting that the creation of new habitats favoured rapid morphological evolution. The percentage of continental flooded area (Fig.  5C ) had the next-highest explanatory power, albeit considerably lower than subduction flux (median relative influence = 24%; range = 2–46%). There was little support for a relationship between the remaining environmental drivers (atmospheric CO 2 , sea surface temperature, dissolved O 2 ) and the rate of coelacanth evolution (Fig.  5 ). A Scaled and centred rate of evolution of all coelacanths, B subduction flux; C continental flooded area (incorporating % shallow seas), D sea surface temperature; E atmospheric CO 2 concentration, F dissolved (marine) O 2 , and G relative influence of each environmental driver on rate of coelacanth evolution. x -axis error bars in A-F are standard errors derived from the source literature, y -axis error bars are 95% confidence limits; error bars in G represent 95% confidence limits and are derived from 1000 iterations of the boosted regression tree analysis. Green = Palaeozoic, blue = Mesozoic, yellow = Cenozoic. Lastly, we evaluated disparity of coelacanth morphology using two approaches: ( i ) principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) applied to the discrete phylogenetic matrix (with missing data for each coelacanth species reconstructed using parsimony), and ( ii ) principal component analysis (PCA) of the 2-D geometric morphometrics to analyse shape of the body, lower jaw, and cheek (Fig.  6 ; Supplementary Fig.  7 ). Variation in body shape and lower jaw are conservative 2 , 3 , 9 , while the cheek region is more variable among species (or disparate) 3 , 9 , 36 . A Principal coordinates analysis plot showing principal coordinate 1 versus principal coordinate 2, disparity based on discrete characters for all coelacanth taxa ( n  = 82 species). B–D Principal component analysis plot showing principal component 1 versus principal component 2 disparity based on 2-D geometric morphometrics for B body shape ( n  = 35 species); C cheek bones ( n  = 34 species); and D lower jaw shape ( n  = 38 species). Time-binned morphospaces per geological period compare the distinctiveness, similarity, and temporal evolution of the morphological disparity of coelacanths over a period of 410 Ma. Larger morphospaces indicate greater morphological disparity; overlapping morphospaces indicate similar body plans. There are distinct morphospaces for Devonian and post-Devonian coelacanths. Latimeria falls close to its closest, Mesozoic relatives for discrete characters ( A ) and cheek shape ( C ) but is quite distantly separated from Mesozoic forms for overall body shape ( B ) and lower jaw shape ( D ). All individual species data points plotted and identified in Supplementary Fig.  8 . Identification of coelacanth silhouettes is provided in Supplementary Fig.  4 (complete body) and Fig. 11 (cheek region and lower jaw). For the principal coordinates analysis of discrete characters, we recovered a profound shift in overall disparity between Devonian and all post-Devonian coelacanths, but the highest disparity (discrete) during the Devonian and Triassic (Fig.  6A ; Supplementary Fig.  8  A). Again, Latimeria appears to have moved little outside the morphospace of its closest Mesozoic relatives, despite having an additional 66 million years to evolve, consistent with the stasis for discrete characters found in the tip-dated phylogenetic analyses. For the principal component analysis of overall body shape (Fig.  6B ; Supplementary Fig.  8B ), the Devonian Miguashaia bureaui , the Carboniferous Allenypterus montanus , and the Triassic Foreyia maxkuhni are three outliers highly modified in body shape compared to the generalised coelacanth body type, accounting for approximately 35% of the total variation. A second source of body-shape variation considers the discrepancies associated with the heterocercal and triphycercal caudal fins (Supplementary Fig.  9A ). A major shift of disparity occurred between Devonian and post-Devonian species. Latimeria is positioned away from its closest Mesozoic relatives, again consistent with the lack of stasis found for continuous (shape) characters in the tip-dated phylogenetic analyses. The disparity in the cheek region offers a distinct pattern of temporal evolutionary disparity. Two temporal shifts characterized the cheek disparity (Fig.  6C ; Supplementary Fig.  8C ): one post-Devonian (narrowing of the cheek, Supplementary Fig.  9B ) and the second between the Triassic and Jurassic (deepening of the cheek, Supplementary Fig.  9B ). The disparity of the cheek region is greater than that of body shape and lower jaw, while the disparity of the lower jaw is slightly greater than that of the body shape and shows a relatively constant temporal overlap (Fig.  6D , Supplementary Fig.  10 ). Ngamugawi shows characteristics intermediate between ‘anatomically primitive’ (e.g., Styloichthys , Miguashaia ) and ‘anatomically modern’ (e.g., Diplocercides , Euporosteus , and post-Devonian species) coelacanths sensu Zhu et al. 14 , both in its phylogenetic position and morphological disparity. Phylogenetically, Ngamugawi is closely related to another Australian Devonian coelacanth — Gavinia — both are basal to Diplocercides and Serenichthys , and post-Devonian coelacanths. Anatomically modern coelacanths were thought to be characterized by two pairs of parietals (i.e., one pair of parietals and one pair of preparietals), enlarged preorbital and orbital regions of the ethmosphenoid shield (~40% preorbital, 50% orbital, and 10% postorbital regions), and a trilobate tail (i.e., triphycercal caudal fin) 14 , features absent in ‘anatomically primitive’ forms. Ngamugawi bears one pair of parietals and preparietals, but the proportions of the three ethmosphenoid regions are intermediate between the so-called ‘primitive’ and ‘modern’ coelacanths (48%, 34%, and 18%). Furthermore, Miguashaia bureaui was considered anatomically primitive 14 , due to features inferred in its reconstruction 17 , such as the presence of a heterocercal caudal fin and the proportions of the ethmosphenoid shield (34%, 21%, and 45%). However, new M. bureaui material shows an ethmosphenoid condition more intermediate between ‘anatomically primitive’ and ‘modern’ coelacanths (51%, 30%, and 19%). Thus, the gap between ‘anatomically primitive’ and ‘anatomically modern’ coelacanths is now bridged, leaving only Styloichthys discriminated from all remaining coelacanths. Ngamugawi was crucial to this interpretation, and thus holds a key position in the early evolution of coelacanths (with most other taxa in this region of the tree being poorly known). The undistorted, 3-D-preserved neurocranium of Ngamugawi wirngarri thus provides valuable insight into the neurobiological evolution of early coelacanths more generally. The detailed analyses of evolutionary rates also substantiate the ‘living fossil’ status of Latimeria , but with important nuances. After the Mesozoic, there was a sharp decline in rates of evolution of discrete characters, but rates in meristic and continuous (i.e., shape) traits have not declined; these patterns are also reflected in the morphospace analyses of discrete characters and body shape. Discrete characters often refer to evolutionary innovations, such as the presence or absence of novel structures that are difficult to encapsulate as meristic or continuous traits. In contrast, meristic and continuous characters typically refer to more subtle evolutionary changes in proportions. Thus, a biological interpretation of the rate results is that, since the Cretaceous, coelacanths have largely ceased evolving major innovations (discrete characters), yet finer-scale tinkering (meristic and continuous characters) has continued unabated, as indeed has genomic evolution 37 , 38 . Hence, coelacanths might indeed be considered living fossils due to their lack of major recent innovations, but in more subtle features and their DNA 38 , they have continued to evolve at more normal rates for vertebrates. Although slowly evolving organisms, higher rates of global tectonic activity appear to have been one of the main putative abiotic drivers of faster rates of morphological evolution in coelacanths by facilitating episodes of biogeographic differentiation. Both specimens were collected during the 2008 Museum Victoria Gogo Expedition led by JAL and funded by the Australian Research Council. Landowners and leaseholders gave permission to do field work, and no additional permits were required under the Lands Administration Act. The specimens are registered in the collections of the Western Australian Museum as WAM 09.6.148 (holotype) and Museum Victoria as NMV P231504 (paratype). David Pickering and John A. Long (MV) extracted the specimens from their limestone matrix using repeated 10% acetic acid baths, with newly exposed bones strengthened with Paraloid/Mowital B30 in ethanol. JAL dusted specimens with a sublimate of ammonium chloride prior to photography and drew illustrations using a camera lucida. Computed tomography We were granted permission to CT scan the material by Rosemary Nuggett, on behalf of the Gooniyandi people of the Mimbi community, and Mikael Siversson of the Western Australian Museum. We imaged part and counterpart (parts A & B) of the holotype WAM 09.6.148 at the Australian National University (ANU) X-ray Micro-CT Laboratory. Later, we (re)imaged the holotype (part A) and the paratype MV P231504 at the Adelaide Microscopy CT Facility (University of Adelaide) on a Skyscan1076 X-ray microtomography scanner using the following parameters: holotype, 74 kV; 135 μA; 0.5 mm aluminium (Al) filter; 360° rotation at 0.4° increments; frame averaging = 2; 2.4 second acquisition time; and paratype, 100 kV; 70 μA; 1.0 mm aluminium (Al) filter; 360° rotation at 0.4° increments; 3 frames/rotation; 4.1 second acquisition time. The resultant pixel size for the initial holotype scan was 150 μm, the paratype was 9 μm, and the holotype (part a) rescan was 17 μm. We reconstructed the resultant 16-bit depth TIFF images using the Skyscan NRecon software (Bruker microCT, Belgium), after which we completed 3-D segmentation and rendering using Mimics v.19.0 (biomedical.materialise.com/mimics; Materialise, Leuven, Belgium). Skull reconstruction was done in 3-matic (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium), and animations assembled using Adobe Premier Pro. Scan data and all resulting 3-D models (STLs) and animations are available via MorphoSource ( www.morphosource.org/projects/000485769?locale=en ), as well as the Github repository github.com/cjabradshaw/CoelacanthEvolution/ . Phylogenetic analyses To assess the phylogeny, we compiled three phylogenetic matrices for 82 coelacanth species and five onychodontiform outgroups containing 268 discrete, 14 meristic, and 40 continuous characters (see Supplementary Information for detailed description of all characters). Detailed description of the characters, states, scores and sources is provided in the supplementary information. We applied Bayesian (BEAST2) and maximum parsimony analyses (TNT) to create a newly proposed phylogeny. The discrete matrix is available on MorphoBank (Project 3471), the meristic and continuous characters are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8054092 . Bayesian tip-dated analyses We were performed Bayesian tip-dated analyses using BEAST 1.10.5 39 (BEAST2 currently cannot accommodate continuous traits with missing data). The data were explicitly gathered to satisfy the assumptions of tip dating, namely sampling all variable traits, including autapomorphies (see Supplementary Information). The most appropriate available tree prior was the birth-death serial-sampling model (BDSS 40 ); the alternative SABD tree prior is only available in BEAST2 41 . The optimal evolutionary histories that explain the discrete, meristic and continuous traits, as well as stratigraphic dates, were inferred using Markov-chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) approaches, as implemented in BEAST. The executable XML files, with annotations describing model, prior, MCMC run and logging settings, and R scripts, are available in Github https://github.com/cjabradshaw/CoelacanthEvolution . Four runs of all analyses were conducted, with run lengths and burnin confirmed as adequate for convergence using Tracer 42 ; the post-burnin samples of all 4 runs were then combined and summarised using post-processing BEAST modules LogCombiner and TreeAnnotator 43 as well as R scripts available in scripts/evolrate using libraries disparity 44 , phytools 45 , phylotate 46 and geoscale 47 . Tip calibrations were employed using the full stratigraphic range (including uncertainty) for each species; taxa from the same deposit were constrained to co-vary in age by putting a tight (exponential) prior on their age variance ( cf   48 ). The maximum root age was unconstrained, but there was an exponential prior putting 95% of probability distribution between the oldest sampled fossil (412.15 Ma) and the oldest unequivocal sarcopterygians (418 Ma). Trees were rooted with five onychodontiform outgroup taxa. Discrete morphological characters were analyzed using the Mkv-model which corrects for non-sampling of constant characters 49 . Multistate characters that formed clear morphoclines (characters 1, 2, 6, 8, 10, 15-16, 23, 26, 36, 53, 60, 74, 76, 97, 100, 110, 112, 135, 137, 208, 218, 224, 227, 240, and 258) were treated as ordered; others were treated as unordered. Among-character rate variation was modelled using the gamma parameter 50 . A state-partitioned model was employed, with substitution rates scaled by state number to correct for state ( = base) frequencies (see King et al. 51 ). Meristic characters were analyzed using a high-state ordered Mk-model. Essentially, meristic characters were treated as ordered multistate characters with very large numbers of states, the possible states being the minimum observed value, the maximum observed value, and all intervening whole numbers. Changes between any two states were constrained to pass through all intervening values (states). The large number of states for some characters required the use of unorthodox state labels, which are detailed in the Supplementary Information . Continuous characters were log-transformed (to base 10) to reduce heteroscedasticity where relevant (highly right-skewed). The transformed data were then analysed using Brownian motion models implemented in BEAST 52 , with the average evolutionary rate (i.e., variance) for each continuous character estimated separately. Rate variation across the tree was modelled using two different clock models; in the main analyses, rate variation was estimated separately for the discrete, meristic and continuous characters to test for concordance in patterns. Uncorrelated lognormal (UCLN) relaxed clock This clock model assumes rates vary independently across branches, with the values approximating a lognormal distribution with variance estimated from the data 53 . To achieve convergence, these analyses had to be performed using MC3 methods (4 chains, delta 0.08). The dated tree from this clock model is shown in Fig.  3 , along with the estimated rates of discrete, meristic and continuous characters across time (in Fig.  4 and Supplementary Fig.  5 ). For testing correlates of evolutionary rates, where it was desirable to have a single rate value for all 3 types of traits, the UCLN relaxed clock analysis was repeated with discrete, meristic and continuous data modelled under a single (i.e., linked) clock. Epoch clock This clock model assumes rates vary independently across time slices, but rates in all branches within each time slice are the same 54 . Branches spanning multiple time slices are allocated multiple rates (i.e., the segment of branch within time slice a is allocated the rate for time slice a , etc.). Seven epochs were employed: Devonian (and earlier), Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary. The rates of evolution for discrete, meristic, and continuous characters across the seven epochs is shown in Supplementary Fig.  5 . Parsimony analyses Parsimony analyses used TNT 55 included the discrete, meristic and continuous characters (scaled to the same weight as binary characters), with outgroup and ordering assumptions as above. In order to remove negative log values (unreadable by TNT), all continuous characters had +2 added; the magnitude of the addition makes no difference under parsimony. Searches involved 1000 TBR replicates holding 100000 trees at each step. The strict consensus tree was calculated for all taxa, and with the three most unstable taxa pruned 56 (Supplementary Fig.  6 ). Clade support was calculated using 200 bootstrap replicates. The executable TNT files are in Github at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8054092 . Boosted regression trees We also built boosted-regression trees to test the relationship between rate of coelacanth evolution and five putative environmental drivers, namely subduction flux 57 , continental flooded area (combined with percentage of shallow seas) 58 , 59 , sea surface temperature 57 , dissolved O 2 60 atmospheric CO 2 61 (see Supplementary Information for data collection for these parameters) to account for potential nonlinearity in the relationships. We hypothesised that the rate of evolution would increase within relatively higher concentrations of dissolved O 2 given its suggested role in the evolution of animal life during the Phanerozoic 62 (but see Schachat 63 , 64 ). We further hypothesised that variation in atmospheric CO 2 might have influence coelacanth evolution given its role in modifying climate 65 and the flow of trophic energy through ecological networks 66 . We predicted that relatively higher sea surface temperatures would indicate higher rates of coelacanth evolution given the positive influence of temperature on poikilotherm metabolism 67 . Finally, we predicted that increasing subduction flux 57 , a measure of relative tectonic activity, would facilitate episodes of biogeographic differentiation and influence patterns of speciation 65 , 68 through the exploitation of novel niches, and that a higher percentage of shallow seas globally would provide more opportunity for evolution since most coelacanth species have been discovered mainly in marine and estuarine palaeoenvironments 9 , 69 , 70 . We also accounted for potential phylogenetic non-independence and temporal autocorrelation by resampling the dataset 1000 times using the following procedure: ( i ) we constructed a temporal vector of ages by Gaussian-resampling the mean and standard deviation of the intervals between fossil appearance periods (based on the first and last appearances) using one-third of the calculated standard deviation and removing the negative intervals; ( ii ) for each resampled temporal sequence, we determined which species appeared within the sequence points (again, based on first and last appearances), ( iii ) for each of the species within the resampled sequence, we resampled a random uniform value for each putative environmental driver between its maximum and minimum, and ( iv ) we transformed, centred, and scaled the extracted environmental values using the scale function in R. For each of these 1000 resampled datasets, we ran a boosted regression tree emulator to predict the rate of coelacanth evolution (scaled, centred, log 10 -transformed itself to produce a Gaussian-like distribution) from the scaled environmental variables using a learning rate = 0.0003, tolerance = 0.00005, error family = Gaussian, bag fraction = 0.75, tree complexity = 2, and maximum number of trees = 1,000,000 in the function gbm.step from the dismo R library 71 . For each of the 1000 iterations, we retained the coefficient of variation as a measure of goodness of fit, the relative influence of each environmental variable, and the predicted relationship between scaled rate of evolution and each scaled environmental variable, from which we estimated 95% confidence limits using the quantile function in R. However, we also applied a kappa ( κ ) limitation to the resampled selections to limit the influence of outliers 72 , where we retained only the resampled mean ranks within κσ of the overall average mean ( κ  = 2). We then recalculated the average and standard deviation of the mean rank, with the process repeated five times. All data and R code necessary to run this procedure are available at Github https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8054092 . Disparity analyses We evaluated coelacanth morphological disparity using two approaches. ( i ) We used a matrix of discrete characters (268 characters for 82 coelacanth species excluding outgroups) to explore morphological disparity based on Gower’s coefficient 73 . We plotted the morphospaces for taxa in seven time-bins: Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and extant. The first two axes of the principal coordinates analysis explained 42.01% and 11.30% of the variation, respectively (Fig.  6A ). ( ii ) We did 2-D geometric morphometric analyses of body shape, lower jaw, and cheek region for taxa that included the relevant information. We digitized 2-D landmarks with tpsDig2 v.2.32 74 on reconstructions of coelacanths previously verified and corrected when needed. We did three separate analyses to optimize both the number of landmarks and species in each analysis. We digitized 14 2-D landmarks on 35 species to describe the lateral body outline and relative positions of the fins, 17 2-D landmarks on 34 species to capture the shape of the cheek, and seven 2-D landmarks on 38 species to describe the shape of the lower jaw (see Supplementary Information Table  2 .1 for a detailed description of the landmarks). We rotated, scaled, and translated landmark coordinates with a Procrustes superimposition using the function gpagen in the R package geomorph v.4.0.1 75 . We constructed morphospaces based on the two first axes of the principal component analyses. ( iii ) We calculated Procrustes variance for each time-bin using the function morphol.disparity in the package geomorph. All data and R code necessary to repeat disparity analyses are available at Github https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8054092 . Reporting summary Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article. Data availability The CT data generated in this study have been deposited in the Morphosource database at www.morphosource.org/projects/000485769?locale=en . The phylogenetic matrix for discrete character data are available from MorphoBank (Project 3471): morphobank.org/permalink/P3471. All other data used in this study are available from the GitHub repository at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8054092 . Code availability All code and data are available via https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8054092 Zhu, M. & Yu, X. A primitive fish close to the common ancestor of tetrapods and lungfish. 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Geometric morphometric analyses of 2D and 3D landmark data (geomorph) (2021). Download references Acknowledgements We acknowledge the Gooniyandi people and other landholders on which the Gogo fish sites are located. Members of the 2008 field team are thanked for their contribution. Tim Senden, Mike Turner (Australian National University, Australia), and Ruth Williams (Adelaide Microscopy, Australia) are thanked for performing the CT scans. Michael Siversson and Helen Ryan (Western Australian Museum) are thanked for arranging specimen access. Jenjira Prombansung, Clara Comeau, Chantal Rodrigue, and Laurent Houle (UQAR, Canada) helped with illustrations. Richard Flament and Laurianne Richard assisted with compiling coelacanth diversity data. Wen Wen provided high resolution images of specimens for scoring characters. Andrew Wendruff and Mark V.H. Wilson for the permission to use information on unpublished Whiteia coelacanths. Florian Witzmann (Museum für Naturkunde, Germany) is thanked for access to Euporosteus eifeliensis and cast material of Diplocercides kayseri . Fieldwork was funded by the Australian Research Council, with grant DP 0772138 (JAL). This work was supported by the Australian Research Council DP 220100825 (JAL, KT, AMC), DP 200103398 (JAL, AMC), DP 110101127 (JAL, KT) and DP 0772138 (JAL). Other fundings sources include Honorary Visiting Scholar at Flinders University 2019, 2023 to (RC), Visiting professor at Mahasarakham University (2023 to RC), and Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada RGPIN−2019-06133 (RC), NERC (Natural Environment Research Council) Standard Grant NE/P013090/1 (HD), and QEII Fellowship (KT). Author information These authors contributed equally: Alice M. Clement, Richard Cloutier, John A. Long. Authors and Affiliations College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia Alice M. Clement, Richard Cloutier, Michael S. Y. Lee & John A. Long Département de Biologie, Chimie et Géographie, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, G5L 3A1, Canada Richard Cloutier & Olivia Vanhaesebroucke Excellence Center in Evolution of Life, Basin Studies and Applied Paleontology,, Palaeontological Research and Education Centre, Mahasarakham University, Maha Sarakham, 44150, Thailand Richard Cloutier Earth Sciences Section, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, 5000, Australia Michael S. Y. Lee Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany Benedict King Global Ecology | Partuyarta Ngadluku Wardli Kuu, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5001, Australia Corey J. A. Bradshaw University of Bristol, School of Earth Sciences, Bristol, UK School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, 6845, Australia Kate Trinajstic Earth and Planetary Sciences, Western Australian Museum, 49 Kew Street, Welshpool, 6106, Australia Kate Trinajstic & John A. Long You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar Contributions Conceived project: A.M.C., R.C., K.T., J.A.L. Fieldwork: A.M.C., K.T., J.A.L. Specimen preparation & photography: A.M.C., K.T., J.A.L. Specimen interpretation: A.M.C., R.C., H.D., J.A.L. CT –scanning, segmentation & visualisation: A.M.C. Matrix construction: A.M.C., R.C., J.A.L. Character scoring: A.M.C., R.C., H.D., B.K., J.A.L., O.V. Analyses: R.C., M.S.Y.L., B.K., O.V., C.J.A.B. Figures: A.M.C., R.C., M.S.Y.L., B.K., J.A.L., O.V., C.J.A.B. Writing – original draft: A.M.C., R.C., J.A.L. Writing – review & editing: A.M.C., R.C., M.S.Y.L., H.D., B.K., K.T., J.A.L., O.V., C.J.A.B. 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Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles APA vs. MLA | The Key Differences in Format & Citation The Basics of In-Text Citation | APA & MLA Examples More interesting articles Citation examples for common sources types Et Al. | Meaning & Use in APA, MLA & Chicago Hanging Indent | Word & Google Docs Instructions How to Cite a Book | APA, MLA, & Chicago Examples How to Cite a Journal Article | APA, MLA, & Chicago Examples How to Cite a Lecture | APA, MLA & Chicago Examples How to Cite a Newspaper Article | MLA, APA & Chicago How to Cite a Website | MLA, APA & Chicago Examples How to Cite a Wikipedia Article | APA, MLA & Chicago How to Cite a YouTube Video | MLA, APA & Chicago How to Cite an Image | Photographs, Figures, Diagrams How to Cite an Interview | APA, MLA & Chicago Style Parenthetical Citation | APA, MLA & Chicago Examples What Are Endnotes? | Guide with Examples What Are Footnotes? | Guide with Word Instructions What Does Ibid. Mean? | Definition & Examples What is a DOI? | Finding and Using Digital Object Identifiers What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format Scribbr APA Citation Checker An innovative new tool that checks your APA citations with AI software. Say goodbye to inaccurate citations! 146 IMAGES Harvard Style General rules: Reference list A Quick Guide to Referencing Referencing Harvard Referencing: 15 Amazing Tips You Need to Know Referencing VIDEO Referencing Basics (Part 1b) Part 16 Self referencing association in entity framework Lecture 3 Referencing Discussion || How to do referencing || referencing || reference IN-TEXT CITATIONS How Select the Reference From a Research Paper HOW TO CITE AND REFERENCE IN YOUR PROJECT AND SEMINAR 1 (TIPS ON CITATION AND BIBLIOGRAPHY) COMMENTS Research Guides: APA Citation Style: Citation Examples Parenthetical citations: (Grady et al., 2019; Jerrentrup et al., 2018) Narrative citations: Grady et al. (2019) and Jerrentrup et al. (2018) If a journal article has a DOI, include the DOI in the reference. If the journal article does not have a DOI and is from an academic research database, end the reference after the page range (for an explanation of why, see the database information page). Common Reference List Examples For example, you are citing study notes titled "Health Effects of Exposure to Forest Fires," but you do not know the author's name, your reference entry will look like this: Health effects of exposure to forest fires [Lecture notes]. (2005). Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com. PDF 7th edition Common Reference Examples Guide This guide contains examples of common types of APA Style references. Section numbers indicate where to find the examples in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). More information on references and reference examples are in Chapters 9 and 10 of the Publication Manual as well as the Concise Guide to APA ... Reference Examples More than 100 reference examples and their corresponding in-text citations are presented in the seventh edition Publication Manual.Examples of the most common works that writers cite are provided on this page; additional examples are available in the Publication Manual.. To find the reference example you need, first select a category (e.g., periodicals) and then choose the appropriate type of ... Examples of References in APA (7th ed.) style This guides shows how to reference with the APA 7th edition style. There are many different types of references (e.g. books, journal articles, websites). Click on the type you require below to see the components of the reference with an example. Books. Journal Articles. Web pages and social media. Newspaper articles. Dictionary or Encyclopaedia. Reference Examples Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition by American Psychological Association The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition is the official source for APA Style. With millions of copies sold worldwide in multiple languages, it is the style manual of choice for writers, researchers, editors, students, and educators in the ... Citation Examples Citation Examples | Books, Articles, Websites & More. Published on April 9, 2021 by Jack Caulfield. Revised on January 17, 2024. The most common citation styles are APA and MLA. To cite a source in these styles, you need a brief in-text citation and a full reference. Use the interactive tool to understand how a citation is structured and see ... A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors' names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ' et al. ': Number of authors. In-text citation example. 1 author. (Davis, 2019) 2 authors. (Davis and Barrett, 2019) 3 authors. How to Cite in APA Format (7th edition) For example: (Smith, 2020, p. 170). Parenthetical vs. narrative citation. The in-text citation can take two forms: parenthetical and narrative. Both types are generated automatically when citing a source with Scribbr's APA Citation Generator. Parenthetical citation: According to new research … (Smith, 2020). Narrative citation: Smith (2020 ... APA Formatting and Citation (7th Ed.) Throughout your paper, you need to apply the following APA format guidelines: Set page margins to 1 inch on all sides. Double-space all text, including headings. Indent the first line of every paragraph 0.5 inches. Use an accessible font (e.g., Times New Roman 12pt., Arial 11pt., or Georgia 11pt.). Include a page number on every page. Journal Article References Narrative citation: Grady et al. (2019) If a journal article has a DOI, include the DOI in the reference. Always include the issue number for a journal article. If the journal article does not have a DOI and is from an academic research database, end the reference after the page range (for an explanation of why, see the database information ... References in Research References to journal articles usually include the author's name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date. Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32 (4), 87-94. Citing Sources: Sample Reference List Citations Examples. All of the following samples are taken from: American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. (In the above sample, the name of the organization is the author. Note that only proper names are capitalized in the title ... APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition) APA Sample Paper; Tables and Figures ... Reference List. Resources on writing an APA style reference list, including citation formats. Basic Rules Basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper Author/Authors Rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors that apply to all APA ... Research Guides: Harvard Citation Style: All Examples In-text citations. Two or more works cited at one point in the text. If two or more works by different authors or authoring bodies are cited at one point in the text, use a semi-colon to separate them: (Larsen 2000; Malinowski 1999) The authors should be listed in alphabetical order. Two or three authors or authoring bodies. Harvard Referencing Style Examples Reference example for the above in-text citation: Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher. Bloom, H. (2005) Novelists and novels. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. Below are Harvard referencing examples of in-text citations and reference list entries for the different ... Citation Examples for APA, MLA, and Chicago Style Guides Chicago citation examples: Book. Citing a book in Chicago uses the author's name, book title, place of publication, publisher, and year of publication. You also include the edition, but only if it's relevant. The author's name is inverted, and the title uses title capitalization. Last Name, First Name. APA Citation Examples APA Citation Examples | Books, Articles, Webpages, Reports. APA provides different reference formats for more than 100 source types. Therefore, it's essential to first determine what kind of source you're dealing with. In some cases, this isn't as easy as it sounds. Sources can take the form of a webpage or PDF file, but this is just the ... References References provide the information necessary for readers to identify and retrieve each work cited in the text. Check each reference carefully against the original publication to ensure information is accurate and complete. Accurately prepared references help establish your credibility as a careful researcher and writer. Consistency in reference ... Research: APA Citations (7th edition): Citing Books and eBooks You will need to include that information in your citation as well. When citing multiple authors, list the first author as normal, followed by a comma, an ampersand (&), and then the second author. In this example, the first author has a middle initial, so this is included. The edition is placed right after the title but before the period. Example: Examples of References in APA (6th ed.) style DOIs can be found in database records and the reference lists of published works). Books with a URL or a DOI can be referenced like this: Author/editor (Surname, Initials) (Year of publication) Title of book (in italics) (Edition) (if not the 1st edition) DOI or Retrieved from URL. Academic Guides: References: Common Reference List Examples At the end of the entry, place the date of the original publication inside parenthesis along with the note "original work published.". For in-text citations of republished work, use both dates in the parenthetical citation, original date first with a slash separating the years, as in this example: Freud (1923/1961). Health Referencing in APA : A-Z Referencing Examples Examples. Example 1 (Narrative citation) J. Clewes (personal communication, May 3, 2024) suggested that… Example 2 (Parenthetical citation) (K. Dodhia, personal communication, June 15, 2024) Tips. Authors' names are formatted with the initial(s) of their given name(s), a full stop, and then their family name/surname. Citation Styles Guide The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the main style guide for legal citations in the US. It's widely used in law, and also when legal materials need to be cited in other disciplines. Bluebook footnote citation. 1 David E. Pozen, Freedom of Information Beyond the Freedom of Information Act, 165, U. P🇦 . L. Home Welcome to the UT Inclusive Citation Library Guide! The compiled available sources and best practices will help you in your search for diverse and inclusive scholars and research so that students, faculty, and staff can include more underrepresented voices in their research citations. ... The practice of citing creative and academic research ... A Late Devonian coelacanth reconfigures actinistian phylogeny A, B 'Part a' of WAM 09.6.148 (holotype) shown in left dorsolateral view and skull close up in left lateral view.C 'Part b' of WAM 09.6.148 (holotype) showing all exposed elements; D ... How to Cite Sources Example: Parenthetical citation (APA) Evolution is a gradual process that "can act only by very short and slow steps" (Darwin, 1859, p. 510). An alternative to this type of in-text citation is the system used in numerical citation styles , where a number is inserted into the text, corresponding to an entry in a numbered reference list. assignment essay homework phd report resume review speech thesis