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Geography Case Studies

All of our geography case studies in one place

Coastal Erosion

Use the images below to find out more about each case study.

The Holderness Coast

The Dorset Coast

Happisburgh

Coastal Management

Sandscaping at Bacton, Norfolk

Coastal Realignment Donna Nook

Coastal Realignment Medmerry

Coastal Deposition

Spurn Point

Blakeney Point Spit

Earthquakes

Amatrice Earthquake Case Study

Chile Earthquake 2010

Christchurch Earthquake

Haiti Earthquake

Japan Earthquake 2011

L’Aquila Earthquake

Lombok Indonesia Earthquake 2018

Nepal Earthquake 2015

Sulawesi, Indonesia Earthquake and Tsunami 2018

Taiwan (Hualien) Earthquake 2024

Turkey-Syria Earthquake 2023

New Zealand 2016

Malaysia Causes of Deforestation

Malaysia Impacts of Deforestation

Alaska Case Study

Epping Forest Case Study

Sahara Desert Case Study

Svalbard Case Study

Thar Desert Case Study

Western Desert Case Study

Energy Resources

Chambamontera Micro-hydro Scheme

Extreme Weather in the UK

Beast from the East Case Study

Storm Ciera Case Study

Food Resources

Almería, Spain: a large-scale agricultural development

The Indus Basin Irrigation System: a large-scale agricultural development

Sustainable food supplies in a LIC – Bangladesh

Sustainable food supplies in a LIC – Makueni, Kenya

Landforms on the River Tees

Landforms on the River Severn

Indus River Basin (CIE)

River Flooding

Jubilee River Flood Management Scheme

Banbury Flood Management Scheme

Boscastle Floods

Kerala Flood 2018

Wainfleet Floods 2019

The Somerset Levels Flood Case Study

UK Floods Case Study November 2019

River Management

The Three Gorges Dam

Mekong River

The Changing Economic World

How can the growth of tourism reduce the development gap? Jamaica Case Study

How can the growth of tourism reduce the development gap? Tunisia Case Study

India Case Study of Development

Nigeria – A NEE

Torr Quarry

Nissan Sunderland

The London Sustainable Industries Park (London SIP)

Tropical Storms

Beast from the East

Hurricane Andrew

Cyclone Eline

Cyclone Idai Case Study

Typhoon Haiyan 2013

Hurricane Irma 2017

Typhoon Jebi 2018

Hurricane Florence 2018

Typhoon Mangkhut 2018

Urban Issues

Birmingham – Edexcel B

Urban Growth in Brazil – Rio de Janeiro

Urban Growth in India – Mumbai

Urban Growth in Nigeria – Lagos

London – A Case Study of a UK City

Inner City Redevelopment – London Docklands

Sustainable Urban Living – Freiburg

Sustainable Urban Living – East Village

Sustainable Urban Transport Bristol Case Study

Bristol – A major UK city

Volcanic Eruptions

Eyjafjallajokull – 2010

Mount Merapi – 2010

Mount Pinatubo – 1991

Sakurajima Case Study

Nyiragongo Case Study

Water Resources

Hitosa, Ethiopia – A local water supply scheme in an LIC

The South-North Water Transfer Project, China

Wakal River Basin Project

Lesotho Large-Scale Water Transfer Scheme

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How to approach Case Studies

There is no set way in which you should approach case studies, however using the rule of the ‘five Ws’ is always a good place to start.

The ‘five Ws’ are:

• What happened?
• When did it happen?
• Where did it happen?
• Why did it happen?
• Who was affected by it happening?

When you revise a case study or meet new content for the first time you should be thinking about the five Ws:

• What happened? – Can you recall some background on what actually happened, with some facts and figures?
• When did it happen? – Have you some idea of the date that the case study happened and if possible the time of day?
• Where did it happen? – The geographical setting is very important, so can you name the location, the country, could you draw a sketch map to show the location?
• Why did it happen? – What causes the case study incident to occur? What natural systems were interacting with human activity?
• Who was affected by it happening? – Which people were affected? How many were affected? Can you say something about the wealth of the people affected? Students aiming for the higher grades will also be able to discuss what the affected people did about the situation. They would be able to discuss the management strategies put in place to reduce the impacts of the case study incident while it was happening and should be able to discuss what could be done to reduce the impacts of any future incident.

Case Studies in Geography Education as a Powerful Way of Teaching Geography

• First Online: 20 October 2016

Cite this chapter

• Eduard Hofmann 5 &
• Hana Svobodová 5  

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A case study presents an appropriate form and method of providing students with a solution of real situations from the surroundings in which they live. This is called “powerful teaching”, and it is designed to help pupils and students to be able to cope with the rigours of everyday life through geography education. This method is not so well known and used in Czechia as abroad, where it is known under the name “powerful knowledge” or “powerful teaching”. For this reason the introductory part of this chapter devotes enough space to understand “powerful learning” and noted how it differs from inquiry-based, project-based, problem-based, student-centred and constructivist approaches to learning. Knowledge from the Czech geography education is in our case used for solving a case study in a decisive process in which students solve options and consequences of the construction of a ski resort in Brno (in Czechia). They submit their conclusions to the municipal council for assessment.

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Adamová, K. (2014). Wilsonův les [Wilson forest]. Průvodce Brnem. http://www.pruvodcebrnem.cz/wilsonuv-les . Accessed 8 Aug 2015.

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Janko, T. (2012). Nonverbální prvky v učebnicích zeměpisu jako nástroj didaktické transformace [Non-verbal elements in textbooks of geography as an instrument of didactic transformation]. (disertační práce/thesis), Brno: Pedagogická fakulta MU.

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Kárný, M. (2010). Sjezdovky v Brně? Zatím zůstává jen u přání [Ski Slopes in Brno? Yet Remains only in Wish]. Deník 4. 1. 2010. http://brnensky.denik.cz/serialy/sjezdovky-v-brne-zatim-zustava-jen-u-prani20100103.html . Accessed 8 July 2015.

Kol. (2013). Rámcový vzdělávací program pro základní školy RVP ZV [Framework education programme for basic education FEP BE]. Praha: Ministerstvo školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy, VÚP. http://www.msmt.cz/vzdelavani/zakladni-vzdelavani/upraveny-ramcovy-vzdelavaci-program-pro-zakladni-vzdelavani . http://www.vuppraha.cz/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/RVP_ZV_EN_final.pdf . Accessed 24 Aug 2015.

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Hofmann, E., Svobodová, H. (2017). Case Studies in Geography Education as a Powerful Way of Teaching Geography. In: Karvánková, P., Popjaková, D., Vančura, M., Mládek, J. (eds) Current Topics in Czech and Central European Geography Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43614-2_7

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Case Study: The Amazon Rainforest

The Amazon in context

Tropical rainforests are often considered to be the “cradles of biodiversity.” Though they cover only about 6% of the Earth’s land surface, they are home to over 50% of global biodiversity. Rainforests also take in massive amounts of carbon dioxide and release oxygen through photosynthesis, which has also given them the nickname “lungs of the planet.” They also store very large amounts of carbon, and so cutting and burning their biomass contributes to global climate change. Many modern medicines are derived from rainforest plants, and several very important food crops originated in the rainforest, including bananas, mangos, chocolate, coffee, and sugar cane.

In order to qualify as a tropical rainforest, an area must receive over 250 centimeters of rainfall each year and have an average temperature above 24 degrees centigrade, as well as never experience frosts. The Amazon rainforest in South America is the largest in the world. The second largest is the Congo in central Africa, and other important rainforests can be found in Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia. Brazil contains about 40% of the world’s remaining tropical rainforest. Its rainforest covers an area of land about 2/3 the size of the continental United States.

There are countless reasons, both anthropocentric and ecocentric, to value rainforests. But they are one of the most threatened types of ecosystems in the world today. It’s somewhat difficult to estimate how quickly rainforests are being cut down, but estimates range from between 50,000 and 170,000 square kilometers per year. Even the most conservative estimates project that if we keep cutting down rainforests as we are today, within about 100 years there will be none left.

How does a rainforest work?

Rainforests are incredibly complex ecosystems, but understanding a few basics about their ecology will help us understand why clear-cutting and fragmentation are such destructive activities for rainforest biodiversity.

High biodiversity in tropical rainforests means that the interrelationships between organisms are very complex. A single tree may house more than 40 different ant species, each of which has a different ecological function and may alter the habitat in distinct and important ways. Ecologists debate about whether systems that have high biodiversity are stable and resilient, like a spider web composed of many strong individual strands, or fragile, like a house of cards. Both metaphors are likely appropriate in some cases. One thing we can be certain of is that it is very difficult in a rainforest system, as in most other ecosystems, to affect just one type of organism. Also, clear cutting one small area may damage hundreds or thousands of established species interactions that reach beyond the cleared area.

Pollination is a challenge for rainforest trees because there are so many different species, unlike forests in the temperate regions that are often dominated by less than a dozen tree species. One solution is for individual trees to grow close together, making pollination simpler, but this can make that species vulnerable to extinction if the one area where it lives is clear cut. Another strategy is to develop a mutualistic relationship with a long-distance pollinator, like a specific bee or hummingbird species. These pollinators develop mental maps of where each tree of a particular species is located and then travel between them on a sort of “trap-line” that allows trees to pollinate each other. One problem is that if a forest is fragmented then these trap-line connections can be disrupted, and so trees can fail to be pollinated and reproduce even if they haven’t been cut.

The quality of rainforest soils is perhaps the most surprising aspect of their ecology. We might expect a lush rainforest to grow from incredibly rich, fertile soils, but actually, the opposite is true. While some rainforest soils that are derived from volcanic ash or from river deposits can be quite fertile, generally rainforest soils are very poor in nutrients and organic matter. Rainforests hold most of their nutrients in their live vegetation, not in the soil. Their soils do not maintain nutrients very well either, which means that existing nutrients quickly “leech” out, being carried away by water as it percolates through the soil. Also, soils in rainforests tend to be acidic, which means that it’s difficult for plants to access even the few existing nutrients. The section on slash and burn agriculture in the previous module describes some of the challenges that farmers face when they attempt to grow crops on tropical rainforest soils, but perhaps the most important lesson is that once a rainforest is cut down and cleared away, very little fertility is left to help a forest regrow.

What is driving deforestation in the Amazon?

Many factors contribute to tropical deforestation, but consider this typical set of circumstances and processes that result in rapid and unsustainable rates of deforestation. This story fits well with the historical experience of Brazil and other countries with territory in the Amazon Basin.

Population growth and poverty encourage poor farmers to clear new areas of rainforest, and their efforts are further exacerbated by government policies that permit landless peasants to establish legal title to land that they have cleared.

At the same time, international lending institutions like the World Bank provide money to the national government for large-scale projects like mining, construction of dams, new roads, and other infrastructure that directly reduces the forest or makes it easier for farmers to access new areas to clear.

The activities most often encouraging new road development are timber harvesting and mining. Loggers cut out the best timber for domestic use or export, and in the process knock over many other less valuable trees. Those trees are eventually cleared and used for wood pulp, or burned, and the area is converted into cattle pastures. After a few years, the vegetation is sufficiently degraded to make it not profitable to raise cattle, and the land is sold to poor farmers seeking out a subsistence living.

Regardless of how poor farmers get their land, they often are only able to gain a few years of decent crop yields before the poor quality of the soil overwhelms their efforts, and then they are forced to move on to another plot of land. Small-scale farmers also hunt for meat in the remaining fragmented forest areas, which reduces the biodiversity in those areas as well.

Another important factor not mentioned in the scenario above is the clearing of rainforest for industrial agriculture plantations of bananas, pineapples, and sugar cane. These crops are primarily grown for export, and so an additional driver to consider is consumer demand for these crops in countries like the United States.

These cycles of land use, which are driven by poverty and population growth as well as government policies, have led to the rapid loss of tropical rainforests. What is lost in many cases is not simply biodiversity, but also valuable renewable resources that could sustain many generations of humans to come. Efforts to protect rainforests and other areas of high biodiversity is the topic of the next section.

Marine Critical Issues: Case Studies

Students use case studies to examine human impacts on marine ecosystems. They evaluate case studies in terms of an area's history, geography, habitats, species, stakeholders, human uses and impacts, and management goals.

Oceanography, Earth Science, Biology, Ecology, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography

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Humans are having a negative impact on marine ecosystems due to pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction, and other unsustainable practices. Analyzing case studies of human impacts on marine ecosystems helps students to understand the critical issues facing the world's oceans today, as well as the positive effects that the establishment of marine protected areas can have on the health of the ocean.

Informal Assessment

Assess students based on their responses to the discussion questions and the completeness and accuracy of their worksheets.

Extending the Learning

Using their worksheet Marine Ecosystem Critical Issues: Case Studies as a guide, have students research, create, and present a case study for a local aquatic or terrestrial protected area.

Prior Knowledge

• Marine ecosystems, interrelationships, and human impacts

1. Activate students’ prior knowledge and build background.

Remind students that Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are areas of the marine environment that are protected by laws in order to preserve their natural and cultural resources. In order to establish and manage MPAs, case studies are created. Ask: What are case studies? Elicit from students that case studies outline important information about an area’s history, geography, habitats, species, human uses, and management goals. Case studies also describe threats to the area and explain why the area should be protected. The goals of such protection focus on restoring ecological balance to the area. Case studies help stakeholders understand how humans impact the area and what can be done to restore ecological balance and sustainably manage the area’s cultural and natural resources. Ask: Who are stakeholders? Remind students that stakeholders are people, organizations, or political entities interested in and/or affected by the outcome of management decisions.

2. Use Apo Island as an example case study of human impacts on a marine ecosystem.

Distribute the Marine Ecosystem Critical Issues: Case Studies worksheet and read aloud the directions. Review the categories of information in the chart, making sure that students know what components of the case study they need to record. Explain that for Case Study #1: Apo Island, they will view a video and work together as a class to complete the chart. For Case Study #2: Galápagos Marine Reserve, they will review a written case study and work in small groups to complete the chart. Show students the video, “EcoTipping Point Success Stories: Apo Island” (6 minutes, 30 seconds) and have them take notes on their worksheets as they watch. After the video, discuss the information students recorded. Ask:

• What happened as a result of Apo Islanders changing their fishing practices and establishing an MPA?
• What do you think would have happened if they did not establish the MPA or change the way they used their island’s ocean resources?

3. View the National Geographic video “Galápagos” to build background.

Tell students that they will watch a short video (4 minutes, 30 seconds) to learn about the Galápagos Islands and the establishment of the Galápagos Marine Reserve. As they watch, focus their attention by telling them to look for examples of the case study information they will record in their charts. Tell them to think about the human impacts that threatened the habitat and organisms of the Galápagos and eventually led to the establishment of the MPA.

4. Review the Galápagos Marine Reserve Case Study.

After viewing the video, divide students into small groups and distribute copies of the handout Galápagos Marine Reserve Case Study. Have students read through the case study and complete the charts on their worksheets. Have groups share the information they recorded for each of the case study components in their charts. Next, ask students to brainstorm the human impacts (threats) that led to the creation of the Galápagos Marine Reserve as a MPA. Ask: Why did the Galápagos MPA need to be protected? List student responses on the board. Then ask students to recall the human impacts that led to the creation of Apo Island’s MPA. Draw a circle around the impacts that are the same as those threatening the Galápagos. Underline impacts that are different from those threatening the Galápagos. Lead a discussion about the similarities and differences between the two case studies, including the human impacts that threaten the balance and sustainability of their marine ecosystems.

5. Have students reflect on what they have learned.

• Based on the two case studies, what was done to address human-induced threats and restore balance in the marine ecosystems?
• Do you think more could or should be done to protect the habitat and organisms of the Galápagos and Apo Island? Why or why not?
• If the establishment of a MPA results in so many positive changes that benefit the people and the ocean, why are there not more MPAs throughout the world?

Learning Objectives

Students will:

• identify and describe human impacts to marine ecosystems
• summarize case study information, including the history, geography, habitats, species, human uses, stakeholders, and management goals for different MPAs
• discuss human actions that can be taken to restore balance to threatened marine ecosystems and species

Teaching Approach

• Learning-for-use

Teaching Methods

• Discussions

Skills Summary

This activity targets the following skills:

• Information, Communications, and Technology Literacy
• Communication and Collaboration
• Understanding
• Acquiring Geographic Information
• Organizing Geographic Information

Connections to National Standards, Principles, and Practices

National Geography Standards

• Standard 14 : How human actions modify the physical environment
• Standard 8 : The characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems and biomes on Earth's surface

National Science Education Standards

• (9-12) Standard F-3 : Natural resources
• (9-12) Standard F-4 : Environmental quality
• (9-12) Standard F-5 : Natural and human-induced hazards

Ocean Literacy Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts

• Principle 6e : Humans affect the ocean in a variety of ways. Laws, regulations and resource management affect what is taken out and put into the ocean. Human development and activity leads to pollution (such as point source, non-point source, and noise pollution) and physical modifications (such as changes to beaches, shores and rivers). In addition, humans have removed most of the large vertebrates from the ocean.
• Principle 6g : Everyone is responsible for caring for the ocean. The ocean sustains life on Earth and humans must live in ways that sustain the ocean. Individual and collective actions are needed to effectively manage ocean resources for all.

Preparation

What you’ll need.

Materials You Provide

Required Technology

• Internet Access: Required
• Tech Setup: 1 computer per classroom, Projector, Speakers
• Plug-Ins: Flash

Physical Space

• Large-group instruction
• Small-group instruction

Other Notes

Before starting the activity, download and queue up the videos.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Educator Reviewers

Expert reviewers.

Special thanks to the educators who participated in National Geographic's 2010-2011 National Teacher Leadership Academy (NTLA), for testing activities in their classrooms and informing the content for all of the Ocean: Marine Ecology, Human Impacts, and Conservation resources.

Last Updated

August 20, 2024

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A Level Geography: Case Studies and Exam Tips

A-Level Geography is a challenging and rewarding subject that explores the dynamic relationships between people and their environments. The curriculum often includes the study of case studies to illustrate key concepts and geographical theories. In this article, we'll delve into the importance of case studies in A-Level Geography and provide exam tips to help you excel in this subject.

 The Significance of Case Studies in A-Level Geography

Case studies are essential in A-Level Geography for several reasons:

1. Illustrating Concepts: 

Case studies provide real-world examples that illustrate the geographical concepts and theories covered in the curriculum. They make abstract ideas tangible and relatable.

2. Application of Knowledge: 

Case studies offer opportunities for students to apply their geographical knowledge and analytical skills to specific situations. This application enhances understanding.

3. Contextual Learning: 

Case studies allow students to explore the complex and dynamic interactions between people and their environments in specific contexts. This contextual understanding is at the heart of geography.

4. Exam Requirement: 

In A-Level Geography exams, you are often required to use case studies to support your arguments and analysis. Having a repertoire of case studies at your disposal is crucial for success.

 Selecting and Using Case Studies

Here's how to select and effectively use case studies in your A-Level Geography studies and exams:

1. Diverse Selection: 

Choose a range of case studies that cover different geographical contexts, themes, and issues. This diversity will prepare you for various exam questions.

2. Local and Global: 

Include both local and global case studies. Local examples may provide opportunities for fieldwork, while global case studies allow you to explore international perspectives.

3. Relevance to the Curriculum: 

Ensure that your case studies align with the topics and themes covered in your A-Level Geography course. They should be relevant to your exam syllabus.

4. In-Depth Understanding: 

Study your selected case studies in-depth. Familiarize yourself with the geographical context, key facts, statistics, and relevant theories and concepts.

5. Interdisciplinary Approach: 

Recognize that geography often intersects with other subjects like environmental science, economics, and sociology. Explore how these interdisciplinary aspects come into play in your case studies.

6. Regular Review: 

Periodically review and update your case studies to ensure you have the most recent data and information. Geography is a dynamic field, and changes can occur over time.

 Exam Tips for A-Level Geography

Here are some tips to help you succeed in your A-Level Geography exams:

1. Practice Essay Writing: 

Geography exams often require essay-style responses. Practice writing coherent and well-structured essays that incorporate case studies effectively.

2. Master Map Skills: 

Geography exams may include map interpretation and analysis. Develop your map-reading skills to excel in this section.

3. Use Case Studies Wisely: 

When using case studies in your exam, ensure they are relevant to the question and directly support your argument. Avoid including irrelevant details.

4. Time Management: 

Manage your time wisely during the exam. Allocate specific time slots for each section or question and stick to the schedule.

5. Understand Command Terms: 

Be familiar with the command terms used in geography questions, such as "explain," "discuss," and "evaluate." Tailor your responses accordingly.

6. Practice Past Papers: 

Work through past exam papers to get a sense of the format and types of questions that may appear in your A-Level Geography exams.

7. Seek Feedback: 

If possible, ask your teacher or a peer to review your practice essays and provide feedback. Constructive feedback can help you refine your writing and analysis skills.

8. Stay Informed: 

Keep up with current geographical events and developments. This knowledge can be invaluable in your essays and discussions.

 Conclusion

A-Level Geography is a subject that bridges the gap between the natural and social sciences, offering a comprehensive view of the world. Case studies are pivotal in this field, providing practical examples that support your learning and exam performance. By selecting diverse and relevant case studies, studying them thoroughly, and practicing effective essay writing and map skills, you can navigate A-Level Geography with confidence and success.

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Professor Graham Squires

Developing Knowledge

Case study research – using case studies by geography

[800 Words; 5 Minute Read] Research methodology often incorporates case studies, and it is important to outline case study epistemological merits and limitations. Firstly, the case study approach allows integration with the causal drivers operating at various geographies. Here in this article, I focus largely at the city and sub-city scale such as the neighbourhood scale as defined by an administrative authority. In doing so, it can be argued that the case study method allows investigators to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events such as individual life cycles and neighbourhood change. Furthermore, case study methods are encouraged when studying complex interaction of phenomenon such as community organization at the neighbourhood scale (Yin, 2017) .

Challenges to this approach involve the difficulty of placing case studies in context that in turn increases the amount of explanatory and causality variables. For instance, it can be argued that the inclusion of context creates more variables than data points, the richness of study needing multiple data sources of evidence, and the need for analysis strategies even if all the relevant variables are quantitative (Yin, 2017) .

Despite these challenges, once placed in some context the use of case studies in this type of research can aid in illuminating neighbourhood issues such as economic decline and growth. If case studies used in research are directed at smaller scale geographies, neighbourhood scales may be appropriate. Neighbourhoods can be aggregated to conceptualise case study areas such as city, city-region, regional, national, global, and policy areas scales where different sets of governance structures and policy areas operate.

Research could focus on inter-neighbourhood analysis at the city-scale case of a city as defined by its administrative local authority boundary. City boundaries contain neighbourhoods formed by political-geographies developed in relation to the census. Census ‘off the shelf’ neighbourhood boundaries are used with a view to further explore whether they can be related to other neighbourhood boundaries (e.g. super output areas in the United Kingdom; block geographies in the United States; and mesh blocks in New Zealand). Neighbourhoods contained within a city case can be analysed in order to explore variable relationships using data sets accessed from city and national administrative organisations.

Databases can be interrogated by looking at certain variables, such as the dependant variable of house prices being used to draw statistical findings in relation to other independent variables that make up ‘global’ city results for all neighbourhood cases at the small scale census level. Further, the specific intra-neighbourhood case studies (i.e. within a single neighbourhood boundary) can be identified and selected through exploratory regression scatterplots that plot a census geography using a house price dependent indicator against other independent indicators such as tenure and educational attainment.

Those small scale geographies with lower than expected price for properties against neighbourhood characteristics can then be used to pinpoint neighbourhoods for Intra-interrogation. This intra-neighbourhood case study selection method provides a more objective selection of neighbourhoods using outliers of the ‘normal’ (line of best fit) housing market in a city-scale case. Once the neighbourhood cases are selected, inter-neighbourhood analysis such as geographical and temporal weighted regression can be carried out between neighbourhoods to provide a city-scale case study.

Once a neighbourhood has been selected, intra-neighbourhood case study analysis can then be carried out within the selected case studies using secondary longitudinal house price change, comparing descriptive statistics (between neighbourhood cases and comparison to wider district and city averages), drawing on primary interview findings, fieldwork, focus groups, and attendance at meetings. The intra-neighbourhood case studies are used to tease out more qualitatively any further neighbourhood drivers of say decline and growth. Including spatial patterns and temporal dynamics.

Specific intra-neighbourhood findings can then be used: (a) to add weight to the statistical and Geographic Information Science (GISc) findings by confirming or rejecting them; and (b) to further enrich the results by providing findings that may have fallen short due to data limitations. In analysing spatial policy, the intra-neighbourhood case selections could be partly formed via parameters such as location in the spatially targetted policy area.

Looking to the future, research into small scale geographical analysis opens up the opportunity to more deeply analyse policy and neighbourhood drivers and dynamics elsewhere. For instance, if looking at neighbourhoods in decline or growth, they could be contextually compared as ‘shrinking’ or ‘growing’ case cities that share the more structural characteristics of industrial decline or technological boom. It should be stressed that these wider cases in other policy areas and cities need to be carefully considered in their use for direct comparative analysis given the path dependencies. A path dependency is a path with which policies and cities have evolved over very specific and different historical and spatial context.

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Types of Case Studies

At least five different types of case studies have been discussed in the geography and social science literature: intrinsic, collective, explanatory, descriptive, and exploratory. In each of these types, there may be single case or multiple case approaches used. An intrinsic case study is defined as research wherein the researcher has a (personal or professional) interest in the project. In this approach, the insider scholar may play the role of a relatively subjective observer (instead of working from a more objective outsider perspective). Collective work refers to the study of a group of interrelated case studies conducted by a single scholar or several researchers working collaboratively. Data from more than one site are often gathered, analyzed, and synthesized collaboratively by a team of researchers using a comparative method of analysis. Explanatory case studies are best used when doing causal investigations since they lend themselves to analysis and, at times, even make contributions to predictive models. Descriptive case studies require that an overarching descriptive or interpretive theory be developed before beginning the study. Finally, exploratory case studies are conducted to gather and analyze foundational data to be used for more expanded work and a set of larger questions to be pursued and carried out after these preliminary pilot data have been assessed.

In human geography , all five of these types of case study approaches have been used in teaching and research. None are mutually exclusive although the use of single case, exploratory, and then explanatory approaches is often the most reliable and valid. For example, a focused case study of Russian immigrants in one metropolitan area (as shown in Figure 1), began with a single case exploratory study and then moved into becoming an explanatory case study in later stages of the project as immigration theory ultimately was tested by a collaborative group of geographers. Key to understanding the application of the theory of heterolocalism in a North American metropolitan area, for example, was a followup study that spatially analyzed religious networks of the same group in the same study area (as shown in Figure 2). This example, and many others published in the discipline's flagship journals in recent years, attest to the usefulness and popularity of the case study approach in conducting geographic research.

• Case Study Approach
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• Capital and Space
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