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What citation style to use for science [Updated 2024]

What citation style should you use for a science paper? In this post, we explore the most frequently used citation styles for science. We cover APA, IEEE, ACS, and others and provide examples of each style.

APA (American Psychological Association) style is a citation format used in the social sciences, education, and engineering, as well as in the sciences. APA consists of two elements: in-text citations and a reference list.

It uses an author-date system, in which the author’s last name and year of publication are put in parentheses (e.g. Smith 2003). These parenthetical citations refer the reader to a list at the end of the paper, which includes information about each source.

APA style resources

🌐 Official APA style guidelines

🗂 APA style guide

📝 APA citation generator

APA style examples

Here is an example of an in-text citation in APA style:

In recent years, much debate has been stirred regarding volcanic soil (Avşar et al., 2018) .

Here is a bibliography entry in APA style:

Avşar, E., Ulusay, R., Aydan, Ö., & Mutlutürk, M . ( 2015 ). On the Difficulties of Geotechnical Sampling and practical Estimates of the Strength of a weakly bonded Volcanic Soil . Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment , 74 ( 4 ), 1375–1394 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0710-9

Chicago style is another form of citation used for science papers and journals. It has two formats: a notes and bibliography system and an author-date system.

The notes and bibliography system is mostly used for the humanities, whereas the author-date system is used in science and business. The latter uses in-text citations formed by the author's last name and date of publication. A bibliography at the end of the paper lists the full information for all references.

Chicago style resources

🌐 Official Chicago style guidelines

🗂 Chicago style guide

📝 Chicago citation generator

Chicago style examples

Here is an in-text citation in Chicago style:

However, a research proved this theory right (Hofman and Rick 2018, 65-115) .

Here is a bibliography entry in Chicago style:

Hofman, Courtney A., and Torben C. Rick . “ Ancient Biological Invasions and Island Ecosystems: Tracking Translocations of Wild Plants and Animals .” Journal of Archaeological Research 26 , no. 1 ( 2018 ): 65–115 . doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9105-3 .

CSE style is the standard format used in the physical and life sciences. This style features three types of citation systems: citation-sequence, name-year, and citation-name.

• Name-Year : In-text citations of this type feature the author’s last name and the year of publication in brackets. A bibliography at the end lists all references in full.

• Citation-Sequence : Every source is assigned a superscript number that is used as an in-text reference. The bibliography at the end lists all numbers with their references in the order in which they appeared in the text.

• Citation-Name : The reference list is organized alphabetically by authors’ last names; each name is assigned a number which can be placed in superscript as an in-text reference.

CSE style resources

🌐 Official CSE style guidelines

📝 CSE citation generator

CSE style examples

Here is an example of an in-text citation in CSE name-year style:

Therefore, the translocation of wild plants was tracked (Hofman and Rick 2018) .

Here is a bibliography entry in CSE name-year style:

Hofman CA, Rick TC. 2018. Ancient Biological Invasions and Island Ecosystems: Tracking Translocations of Wild Plants and Animals. J. Archaeol. [accessed 2019 Mar 11]; 26(1): 65–11. doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9105-3.

AIP style, as its title suggests, is commonly applied in physics and astronomy papers. This style has a numbered citation system , which uses superscript numbers to show in-text citations. These numbers correspond to a list of sources at the end of the paper.

AIP style resources

🌐 Official AIP style guidelines

🗂 AIP style guide

📝 AIP citation generator

AIP style examples

Here is an in-text citation in AIP style:

A similar study was carried out in 2015 ¹ .

Here is a bibliography entry in AIP style:

¹ H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman, Sears & Zemansky's University Physics (Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, CA, 2015) p. 160

ACS style is the standard citation style for chemistry. This style uses both numeric and author-date citations systems. The numbered in-text citations can have either a superscript number or a number in italics. Full references for each source are listed at the end of the paper.

ACS style resources

🌐 Official ACS style guidelines

🗂 ACS style guide

📝 ACS citation generator

ACS style examples

Here is an in-text citation in ACS author-date style:

The opposing side was given first (Brown et al., 2017) .

Here is a bibliography entry in ACS author-date style:

Brown, T.E.; LeMay H.E.; Bursten, B.E.; Murphy, C.; Woodward, P.; Stoltzfus M.E. Chemistry: The Central Science in SI Units . Pearson: New York, 2017.

IEEE style is used for engineering and science papers. This style uses a numeric, in-text citation format, with a number in square brackets. This number corresponds to a reference list entry at the end of the paper.

IEEE style resources

🌐 Official IEEE style guidelines

🗂 IEEE style guide

📝 IEEE citation generator

IEEE style examples

Here is an example of an in-text citation in IEEE style:

As seen in a multi-camera study [1] ...

Here is a bibliography entry in IEEE style:

[1] E. Nuger and B. Benhabib, “Multi-Camera Active-Vision for Markerless Shape Recovery of Unknown Deforming Objects,” J. Intell. Rob. Syst. , vol. 92, no. 2, pp. 223–264, Oct. 2018.

Frequently Asked Questions about citation styles used in science

The most frequently used citation style in the sciences is APA (American Psychological Association) style.

There are two major types of citation systems you can use: author-date or numeric. Numeric citation styles tend to be preferred for science disciplines.

Yes, you have to add a bibliography or reference list citing all sources mentioned in your scientific paper.

Some of the most popular scientific journals are: Science Magazine , Nature , and The Lancet .

Title pages for science papers must follow the format of the citation style that you’re using. For example, in APA style you need to include a title, running head, a name, and other details. Visit our guide on title pages to learn more.

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Best Science Citation Formats for Research Papers

When choosing the best citation format or style for a research paper, it is easy to get confused.

One of the most important  sections in a research proposal  or scientific paper is the bibliography or  references section . Even though it is often listed as one of the last parts of a  research proposal checklist , leaving it to the end would cause you a lot more time and effort.

In this article, we will explore the best citation style or format for a scientific research paper, academic manuscript, or Ph.D./Master’s thesis or dissertation. 

Our new Wordvice APA Citation Generator , MLA Citation Generator , Chicago Citation Generator , and Vancouver Citation Generator automatically generate citations for your specific academic formatting style for FREE. Be sure to check out the citation style you need after reading this article. And get professional proofreading services from Wordvice before submitting your paper to journals or professors to make sure your work is polished and free of errors.

Science Citation Style Guide Overview

If you have ever written any type of research document, then chances are you have come across an academic style guide. 

What is an academic style guide?  

A style guide or manual explains how to cite your sources properly. But that’s not all it does. It also tells you how to format your citations, bibliography (if you’re using one), headings, footnotes, and endnotes—all the things you need to know to avoid academic dishonesty or plagiarism and make sure your work is clear and accurate.

Besides attribution, citation style guides are also used to clarify your writing process, identify elements as points of emphasis, and give credibility to your research arguments. This is especially important when it comes to passing the  peer review process , where your research will be closely scrutinized by other researchers in your field.

In general, citation style guides are used to ensure that all references within a document are formatted consistently. This helps make the document easier to read and less prone to errors that can be confusing to the reader.

Factors to Consider When Choosing A Citation Style

There are numerous citation formats and styles for science papers, academic research, and PhD/Master’s dissertations and theses, but which one should you use?

There are a number of factors to consider when choosing a citation style. At the most basic level, the style you choose should reflect your discipline or field of study, the type of academic or research institution or organization you work for, the guidelines of your target journal, the type of source you are citing, and the nature of your readership.

Related Article:  Complete Introduction to Citation Style Guides

Best Citation Format to Use for Science Papers

So, you have finally completed your research project or dissertation and are ready to submit it to a scientific journal. 

Your next step should be to check your target journal’s submission guidelines–If you haven’t decided on your target journal yet, be sure to check out the following resources:

• How to Choose the Right Journal for My Manuscript
• How Do I Know If My Manuscript Matches a Journal’s Aim and Scope?
• How to Increase my Manuscript’s Chance of Acceptance
• Journal Manuscript Editing Services
• Thesis Editing Services
• Dissertation Editing Services

Ensure that the field, scope, and purpose of your research match your target journal. Another factor you must consider is your budget. Publishing in high-impact science journals is not cheap, so be sure to align your strategy with your professor or lab director.

Second, you want to consider the source of your citation. Is it a book, journal article, or even a website? For science research papers, your sources will almost always be limited to journal articles and other primary research texts.

Regardless, the  Wordvice APA Citation Generator  has books, journal articles, and websites covered. In addition, APA, MLA, Chicago, and Vancouver citation formats can be automatically generated.

APA (American Psychological Association) style  is a citation format used primarily in the social sciences, education, behavioral sciences, business, and nursing. However, APA is also seen in a variety of fields, including basic sciences.

In-text Citation Example – APA 7th style

“The current work assesses the demographic, social, and economic states of the southern half of the Korean peninsula…” (Schwekendiek, 2014, pp. v)

Reference List Citation Example – APA 7th style

Schwekendiek, D. J. (2014).  The Data Atlas of South Korea: Demography, Society, Economic Activity  (First Edition; A. Brennfoerder, Ed.). Seoul, Republic of Korea: Jimoondang.

APA in-text citations follow the Author-Date style in parenthetical format, which consists of the last name of the author and the year of publication within parentheses. To cite a source directly, include the page number using the abbreviation “p/pp”.

APA Style Resources

• Official APA Style Guidebook
• Wordvice APA Citation Guide
• Wordvice APA Citation Generator

Chicago Style

The  Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS)  is used primarily for works in the arts, humanities, and social sciences. Chicago style adds a layer of complexity in the form of two variations: Notes-Bibliography (NB) and author-date. The NB style is widely used in the arts and humanities, while author-date is more favored‌ ‌in‌ ‌the‌ ‌social‌ ‌sciences.

Author-Date Citation Example – Chicago 17th Style

“The current work assesses the demographic, social, and economic states of the southern half of the Korean peninsula…” (Schwekendiek, 2014, v)

Footnote Citation Example – Chicago 17th Style

1. Schwekendiek, “ The Data Atlas of South Korea: Demography, Society, Economic Activity ,” v..

Similar to the APA system, the Author-Date system for Chicago style is composed of in-text citations that match the reference list at the end of the document.

Chicago Style Resources

• Official Chicago Style Guidebook
• Wordvice Chicago Style Guide
• Wordvice Chicago 17th Citation Generator

Vancouver Style

Vancouver style  uses a strict author-number system and has been adopted by many journals and institutions in the medical field, including the  IEEE  (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and  MEDLINE . Vancouver style is different from the above styles in that it features a number encompassed within square brackets  [ ]  when using in-text citations. This bracketed number corresponds to the relevant source cited in the reference list at the end of the paper.

In-text Citation Example – Vancouver style

“According to Schwekendiek (1), the current work assesses the demographic, social, and economic states of the southern half of the Korean peninsula…” 

Reference List Citation Example – Vancouver style

(1) Schwekendiek DJ. The Data Atlas of South Korea: Demography, Society, Economic Activity. First Edition. Brennfoerder A, editor. Seoul, Republic of Korea: Jimoondang; 2014.

Similar to the APA system, the author-date system for Chicago style is composed of in-text citations that match the reference list at the end of the document.

Vancouver Style Resources

• Official Vancouver Style Guidebook  
• Wordvice Vancouver Style Guide
• Wordvice Vancouver Style Citation Generator

MLA ( Modern Language Association ) style  is commonly used by students and writers preparing manuscripts in humanities disciplines ‌such‌ ‌ as‌ ‌cultural‌ ‌studies,‌ ‌English,‌ ‌literature,‌ ‌and‌ ‌critical‌ ‌theory. 

MLA style is rarely (if ever) used as a style guide for scientific papers. However, there are cases, especially for the social sciences and humanities, in which you may find yourself reading articles or books cited in MLA format. For that reason, it’s good to be familiar with MLA style. 

In-text Citation Example – MLA 8th style

“The current work assesses the demographic, social, and economic states of the southern half of the Korean peninsula…” (Schwekendiek v)

Reference List Citation Example – MLA 8th style

Schwekendiek, Daniel J.  The Data Atlas of South Korea: Demography, Society, Economic Activity . Ed. Andrew Brennfoerder. First Edition. Seoul, Republic of Korea: Jimoondang, 2014. Print.

MLA citations are based on the  author-page  format consisting of the author’s name and page number(s). Although your sentence may include the author’s name, any page number(s) should be included in‌ parentheses.

MLA Style Resources

• Official MLA Style Guidebook
• Wordvice MLA Style Guide
• Wordvice MLA 8th Citation Generator

Frequently Asked Questions about Citation Styles

Which citation style should you use.

The citation style you use for your science paper or academic research document is dependent on various factors, including your research scope, target journal for publication, readership/audience, and type of cited source.

Which citation style is most commonly ‌used‌ ‌in‌ ‌science?

The most frequently used citation style used in science is  APA Style  (American Psychological Association) style or  Vancouver Style , created by the  IEEE  (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). 

What citation system is the best to use for science?

There are two types of citation systems:  author-date  and  numeric . The author-date System is most used by those working in the social and basic sciences. Whereas those working in literature, history, and the arts should apply the NB System.

What is the author-date system?

With the author-date system, the author’s last name and publication year are included in an in-text citation. For example: (Schwekendiek, 2014, p. v).

What is an in-text or parenthetical citation?

There are two formats for in-text citations:‌ ‌‌parenthetical‌ ‌‌and‌ ‌narrative. Parenthetical citations include information about the publication date and the author’s name. When a narrative citation is used, the author’s name is incorporated into the sentence and the year follows in parentheses.

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Which citation style should I use?

• Chicago Notes Style
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• Citing Sources

Citing Sources: Which citation style should I use?

The citation style you choose will largely be dictated by the discipline in which you're writing. For many assignments your instructor will suggest or require a certain style. If you're not sure which one to use, it's always best to check with your instructor or, if you are submitting a manuscript, the publisher to see if they require a certain style. In many cases, you may not be required to use any particular style as long as you pick one and use it consistently. If you have some flexibility, use the guide below to help you decide.

Disciplinary Citation Styles

• Social Sciences
• Sciences & Medicine
• Engineering

When in doubt, try: Chicago Notes

• Architecture & Landscape Architecture → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date
• Art → try Chicago Notes
• Art History → use  Chicago Notes
• Dance → try Chicago Notes or MLA
• Drama → try Chicago Notes or MLA
• Ethnomusicology → try Chicago Notes
• Music → try Chicago Notes
• Music History → use  Chicago Notes
• Urban Design & Planning → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date

When in doubt, try: MLA

• Cinema Studies → try MLA
• Classics → try Chicago Notes
• English → use  MLA
• History → use   Chicago Notes
• Linguistics → try MLA
• Languages → try MLA
• Literatures → use  MLA
• Philosophy → try MLA
• Religion → try Chicago Notes

When in doubt, try: APA or Chicago Notes

• Anthropology → try Chicago Author-Date
• Business → try APA (see also Citing Business Information from Foster Library)
• Communication → try APA
• Criminology & Criminal Justice → try Chicago Author-Date
• Economics → try APA
• Education → try APA
• Geography → try APA
• Government & Law (for non-law students) → try Chicago Notes
• History → try Chicago Notes
• Informatics → try APA
• Law (for law students) → use Bluebook
• Library & Information Science → try APA
• Museology → try Chicago Notes
• Political Science → try Chicago Notes
• Psychology → use  APA
• Social Work → try APA
• Sociology → use  ASA or Chicago Author-Date

When in doubt, try: CSE Name-Year or CSE Citation-Sequence

• Aquatic & Fisheries Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Astronomy → try AIP or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Biology & Life Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Chemistry → try ACS
• Earth & Space Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Environmental Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Forest Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Health Sciences: Public Health, Medicine, & Nursing → use AMA or NLM
• Marine Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Mathematics → try AMS or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Oceanography → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Physics → try AIP or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Psychology  → use  APA

When in doubt, try: CSE Name-Year or IEEE

• Aeronautics and Astronautics → try CSE Citation-Sequence
• Bioengineering → try AMA or NLM
• Chemical Engineering → try ACS
• Civil and Environmental Engineering → try CSE Name-Year
• Computational Linguistics → try CSE Citation-Sequence
• Computer Science & Engineering → try IEEE
• Electrical and Computer Engineering → try IEEE
• Engineering (general) → try IEEE or CSE Name-Year
• Human Centered Design & Engineering → try IEEE
• Human-Computer Interaction + Design → try IEEE
• Industrial and Systems Engineering → try CSE Name-Yea r
• Mechanical Engineering → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date

See also: Additional Citation Styles , for styles used by specific engineering associations.

Pro Tip: Citation Tools Save Time & Stress!

If you’re enrolled in classes that each require a different citation style, it can get confusing really fast! The tools on the Quick Citation Generators section can help you format citations quickly in many different styles.

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Reference management. Clean and simple.

How to format your references using the Science citation style

This is a short guide how to format citations and the bibliography in a manuscript for Science. For a complete guide how to prepare your manuscript refer to the journal's instructions to authors .

• Using reference management software

Typically you don't format your citations and bibliography by hand. The easiest way is to use a reference manager:

• Journal articles

Those examples are references to articles in scholarly journals and how they are supposed to appear in your bibliography.

Not all journals organize their published articles in volumes and issues, so these fields are optional. Some electronic journals do not provide a page range, but instead list an article identifier. In a case like this it's safe to use the article identifier instead of the page range.

• Books and book chapters

Here are examples of references for authored and edited books as well as book chapters.

Sometimes references to web sites should appear directly in the text rather than in the bibliography. Refer to the Instructions to authors for Science .

This example shows the general structure used for government reports, technical reports, and scientific reports. If you can't locate the report number then it might be better to cite the report as a book. For reports it is usually not individual people that are credited as authors, but a governmental department or agency like "U. S. Food and Drug Administration" or "National Cancer Institute".

• Theses and dissertations

Theses including Ph.D. dissertations, Master's theses or Bachelor theses follow the basic format outlined below.

• News paper articles

Unlike scholarly journals, news papers do not usually have a volume and issue number. Instead, the full date and page number is required for a correct reference.

• In-text citations

References should be cited in the text

• About the journal

• Other styles
• Journal of Physical Therapy Science
• Organic Chemistry Frontiers
• Cardiovascular Ultrasound

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Citing Your Sources: CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

• Scientific Style and Format
• More CSE style guides

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Scientific Style and Format: the CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers

Scientific Style and Format Style Manual Committee, Council of Science Editors. 8th ed. Cambridge University Press, 2014 Location: Science & Engineering Library T11.S386 2014 

See Chapter 30:  Citations and References pages 617-676  Citing electronic sources pages 665-669

the Citation-Sequence system (see page 619-622) the Name-Year system (see pages 619-620)

The following examples use the Name-Year system.

The in-text citation includes the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication of the document enclosed in parentheses.in-text citation: (Sawin 2004)

The reference list is included at the end of the document. Reference list entries are arranged in alphabetical order by the last name of the author, editor, or other individual or entity.Names are formatted as Last, Initials.reference list entry: Sawin, JL. 2004. Mainstreaming renewable energy in the 21st century. Washington, DC. Worldwatch Institute. 76 p.

General format: Author/editor. Year. Title. Edition. Place of publication: publisher. #pages. Example: Sorensen, B. 2004. Renewable energy : its physics, engineering, use, environmental impacts, economy, and planning aspects. 3rd ed. Boston : Elsevier Academic Press. 928 p.

Chapter or other part of a book

General format: Author of selection. Year. Title of selection. In: Author/editor of book. Title of book. Edition. Place of publication: publisher. Pages of selection. Example: Singleton P, Sainsbury D. 2001. Dictionary of microbiology and molecular biology. 3rd ed. New York: J Wiley. Plasmid; p 593-4.

Conference proceedings

General format: Editor. Year. Title of publication or conference. Name of conference; dates of conference; place of conference. Place of publication: publisher. Total number of pages. Example: Dubois DM, editor. 2004. Computing anticipatory systems. CASYS 2003 – Sixth International Conference; 2003 August 11-16; Liege, Belgium. Melville, NY: American Institute of Physics. 602 p.

Conference papers

General format: Author of the paper. Date of publication. Title of the paper. Connective phrase [In]: editor of the proceedings. Title of the publication, or name of conference, or both; dates of the conference; place of the conference. Place of publication: publisher. Paper pages. Example: Rossler OE. 2004. Nonlinear dynamics, artificial cognition and galactic export. In: Dubois DM, editor. Computing anticipatory systems. CASYS 2003 – Sixth International Conference; 2003 August 11-16; Liege, Belgium. Melville, NY: American Institute of Physics. p 47-67.

Journal article

General format: Author. Year (or Date). Title of article. Title of journal. Volume and issue number. Page numbers. URL in angle brackets. Date accessed. Example:  Bisagni C, Mirandola, C. 2005. Experimental and numer ical investigation of crash behavior of composite helicopter cruciform elements. Journal of the American Helicopter Society 50(1): 107-116. Example: Cavalcanti A. 2003. Assembly automation with evolutionary nanorobots and sensor-based control applied to nanomedicine. IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology.  2(2): 82 – 87.  {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.ezproxy.bu.edu/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1204819} Accessed April 7, 2020

General format:  Author. Title [medium]. Place of Publication: Publisher; Date of Publication [Date of update/Date of citation]. Availability. Example:  Animal Welfare Information Center [Internet]. Beltsville (MD): National Agricultural Library (US); [updated April 14, 2005; cited April 7, 2020]. Available from: http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/.

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Science & Engineering Citation Style Guide: Council of Science Editors (CSE)

• American Chemical Society (ACS)
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• American Mathematical Society (AMS)
• American Institute of Physics (AIP)
• Journal Abbreviations

CSE Citation Style Guide

The Council of Science Editors (CSE) developed the  Scientific Style and Format  for the sciences and related fields. This style guide is used in a variety of scientific fields such as physics, chemistry, genetics, biological sciences, astronomy, ecology, and zoology, for example. 

In Text Citations

There are three ways to cite references in-text. Select one and use in consistently in your paper.

1. Citation-Sequence

Ex. Biologists agree that this is the ideal protocol¹.

Note: Use superscripted numbers at the point of reference. The citations are then listed in order on the reference page. You can refer to more than one reference within one sentence by using a superscript sequence of numbers.

2. Citation-Name

Ex. Biologists agree that this is the ideal protocol¹.

Note: While this style uses the same superscript number system, the citations are numbered alphabetically (not by the order of appearance) by the author's last name on the reference page.

3. Name-Year

Ex. Biologists agree that this is the ideal protocol (Smith 2010).

Note: Cite your source by using the author's last name and year of publication in parenthesis at the point of reference. You will arrange these sources alphabetically on the reference page.

Bibliography

Author(s) or editor(s). Year. Title. Edition if other than first. Place of publication: publisher name; page(s) cited.

Book Chapter

Book chapter, or section with its own author: Author(s) or editor(s) of chapter. Year. Title of chapter. In: continue as you would with regular book citation.

Author(s). Date of publication. Title of book [medium designator]. Edition. Place of publication: publisher; [date updated; date cited]. Notes. 

Print Journal Article

Author(s). Year. Article Title. Journal title using abbreviations. Volume(issue number): inclusive pages, do not use p. 

Online Journal Article

Author(s). Date of publication year month day if available. Title of article. Abbreviated journal title [type of medium]. [date updated; date cited]; volume (issue number): pages cited. Availability statement.

Conference Paper

Author(s). Date of publication. Title of paper. Connective phrase: Editors of proceedings. Title of publication or name of conference, or both; inclusive dates of conference; place of conference. Place of publication: publisher. pages cited.

Note: These are just some examples, please refer to the CSE style guide for more in-depth coverage of citations/references.

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Citation Style Guides and Management Tools

• Chicago or Turabian Style

Forestry & Wildlife Biology

Geosciences, mathematics, generic style of in-text citations, generic examples of citations in a bibliography.

• Other Styles
• Citing Government Information

Online Guides

American Fisheries Society Publications Style

Council of Science Editors Style (formerly the Council of Biology Editors Style) Electronic Resources:

Ohio State University Guide

Colorado State University Guide

Journal of Wildlife Management Style Guide

Print Guide

Scientific Style and Format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers

Call Number: 808.066 S4169 2006

The American Chemical Society Style Guide Electronic Resources:

Berkeley Guide

The American Chemical Society Style Guide

Call Number: 808.06654 A187

Journal of Forestry: Guide for Authors

Journal of Wildlife Management: Guidelines

Geological Society of America: Geology Style

AGU: Author Instructions

Online Guide

American Mathematics Society: Author Package

Handbook of Writing for the Mathematical Sciences

Call number: 808.06651 H638h

American Medical Association Style Guide: Electronic Resources: University of Washington Style Guide

American Medical Association Manual of Style : a guide for authors and editors

Call number 808.06661 A512s 2007

American Institute of Physics Style Manual

CITING QUOTATIONS IN TEXT

Each time you make a statement based on a reference, cite that reference as soon as clarity allows, using the author(s) name(s) and publication date. e.g.:Several studies found that atrazine causes cancer in lab animals (Chickenlittle 1992; Jay and Crow 1996); however, other studies found no such effect (Ostrich et al . 1994; Frankenstein 1998).

The EPA web page provided both water quality standards (EPA 2002a) and drinking water standards (EPA 2002b).

For text references with more than 2 authors, list the first author and then " et al ." Example:Smith et al. 1994.In the bibliography, list all authors for a source.

If you discuss one study for one or more paragraphs, do not cite it every sentence. Introduce the study at the beginning, then end with a final citation. For example: Bailey et al (1994) produced one of the definitive studies on the impacts of grazing on riparian birds….(discuss for a paragraph or two). ……. Hence livestock grazing was concluded to be one of most widespread human actions reducing the diversity of bird populations in the southwest US (Bailey et al 1994).

How to cite a work that was cited by someone else: (Powell 1858, cited in Forbes 1872) .NOTE: The CBE style manual, 1994 (pg. 626) states that "such citation through secondary sources should, in general, be discouraged" (i.e. read the original article if you want to cite it).

• Sample Citation Guidlines This document contains examples of citing scientific work.
• Citations should be listed alphabetically (by first author's last name) and chronologically (i.e. for papers by the same author, list earlier papers first). For papers by the same author in the same year, use:  Harris, C. L.  1990a;     Harris, C. L.  1990b;  EPA 2002;  EPA 2003
• Indent or skip lines between citations for clarity.
• Italicize Latin words (et al., genus species Ursus arctos) & journal names; underline or italicize book titles. 
• << Previous: ASA Style
• Next: Other Styles >>
• Last Updated: Aug 29, 2024 11:26 AM
• URL: https://libguides.lib.umt.edu/citation

Citation Styles for the Sciences

Citation style guide for the sciences, citations and citation styles, choosing a citation style, avoiding plagarism.

• Citation-Sequence
• Citation-Name
• Creating Figures and Tables

This guide will assist with selecting and correctly using a citation style while writing papers in scientific disciplines. There are many different styles to choose from when writing a paper, but many fields of study prefer a particular one. If you are unsure which style to use, check with your instructor.

A citation is a reference to a source you used to support your research. Citations give credit to the original author(s) and can be used to locate particular sources and avoid plagiarism.

A citation style dictates the information necessary for a citation and how the information is ordered, as well as punctuation and other formatting.

This guide includes information on commonly used citation styles used in the sciences:

• Discipline(s): Chemistry, Biochemistry
• Disciplines(s): Civil Engineering
• Discipline(s): Biological sciences
• Discipline(s): Geology
• Discipline(s): Engineering, Computer Science

Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's words or ideas and using them as your own. Often, students will plagiarize unintentionally. To avoid plagiarizing:

• Make sure you get all the citation information you need when you originally find the source.
• Learn how to paraphrase properly.

Paraphrasing

If you gathered the information or ideas from another source, even if you used your own words, you must cite that source.

Tips for paraphrasing sources:

• Try to understand the passage as a whole, rather than pausing to write down specific ideas or phrases.
• Be selective in what you paraphrase. Only summarize the material that is most valuable to your paper.
• Think of what your own words would be if you were describing the passage.
• Look away from the source then write. Read the passage several times until you feel that you understand it and can restate it in your own words. Then, look away from the original text and rewrite it in your own words.
• Take notes in your own words. Set the notes aside and then paraphrase from the notes later.
• Next: ACS Style >>
• Last Updated: Aug 23, 2024 2:41 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.sc.edu/sciencecitationstyles

Citation Guide: Council of Science Editors (Citation-Sequence System)

CSE stands for the Council of Science Editors. CSE style is based on the eighth edition of Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers .

CSE style, used primarily in the physical sciences, life sciences, and mathematics, recommends two systems.

• a Citation-Sequence system, which lists sources in the references list according to the order in which they appear in the document
• a Name-Year system, which is similar to the Author-Date system used by APA

This guide is based on Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (8th ed.) , a publication of the Council of Science Editors. For more detailed formatting information, guides and examples, visit the Council of Science Editors website. Formatting examples also based on the National Library of Medicine Recommended Formats for Bibliographic Citation Supplement: Internet Formats . 2 nd Ed. 2007. [Updated Aug 2015].

[Guide Updated Jul 2017]

Citing Sources within Your Paper (Using In-Text Numbering)

The CSE - Citation/Sequence in-text citation system is simple: It relies on numbers. Unlike the Name/Year system, no parenthetical information is required. All that's needed is a superscripted number: a raised numeral located at the end of a clause or sentence identifying the content as outside source material.

The superscripted number flags the reader's attention to a correspondingly numbered entry on a References list located at the end of a book or document.

In-Text Numbering Rules

CSE In-Text Numbering Rules are as follows:

• In-text superscripted numbers appear after the punctuation and quotation marks at the end of a cited clause or sentence. There is no space between the punctuation and the numeral.
• Source material located in the first part of a sentence separated by an em dash (two hyphens) is cited with the number placed before the dash begins.
• Beginning with 1, each number follows in sequential order from page to page.
• When citing a previously mentioned source, use the first number assigned to the source.
• When referring to more than one source, separate the numbers using commas.
• When referring to a source cited in another source, use the phrase "cited in":

The data 12(cited in 8) collected in the third month of study...

• Superscripted numbers can be created in Microsoft® Word.

How to Superscript Numbers with Microsoft® Word 2007 or later

• Select the number you want to superscript
• Click on the superscript icon located in the font box ( x 2 )
• Click on the superscript icon again to return to normal font

How to Superscript Numbers with Microsoft® Word 2003 or earlier

• Select Font on the tool bar Format drop-down menu and open the Font tab.
• Select the same font and style used in the rest of your document.
• Select a font-size one or two points smaller than the body text.
• Select automatic (for black) or another color choice from the Font color menu.
• Check the Superscript option in the Effects section.
• Click OK, return to your document and insert your superscript number.
• Once inserted, you must return to the Font dialogue box and uncheck the Superscript selection before entering any more text.

Citing Sources at the End of Your Paper

The end documentation in the CSE Citation/Sequence system is called the References list. It is located at the end of a document or book and contains all the bibliographic information needed to find out more about each cited source within the text.

This page is a selective bibliography and does not include a full accounting of sources related to or consulted before you began writing your document, but only those actually cited. You may want to include sources that directly informed your thinking but aren't explicitly cited in the text on a separate page entitled Additional References . Further reading suggestions or a fuller bibliography should be placed on yet another page entitled Additional Reading or Bibliography .

Proper CSE documentation depends on the References page. Without it the in-text numbers would make little sense as they would no longer be pointing at any corresponding entries in the end documentation.

References Formatting Rules

CSE references list formatting rules call for the end documentation to begin on the last page of your document, not on a separate one. If your document is 6½ pages long, the References list should begin on page 7, directly below the concluding text of your document.

The references list formatting rules are as follows:

• References is the most common title, however Cited References or Literature Cited are acceptable titles as well.
• The title should be placed flush-left on the page and may appear Bold , Underlined , or capped in UPPERCASE letters.
• Double space between title and first entry; single-space all other entries.
• Set font-size one or two point (type) sizes smaller than the document text.
• Page numbers are included when specific passages rather than entire sources are being cited and in the case of quotations.
• Arrange entries numerically, following their initial in-text order of appearance. Each number should be followed by a period and one space.

Individual entries may be formatted in the following three ways:

• No indentation. All lines in each entry flush-left.
• Numbers flush-left. All lines in each entry indented one or two spaces.
• Indent the first line of each entry five spaces from the left margin (the normal tab-button default space). Subsequent lines are flush-left.

Bibliography Formatting Rules

CSE bibliography formatting rules differ significantly from the References rules:

• The title-- Bibliography --replaces the word References at the top of a separate page.
• Numbers are omitted altogether and entries are arranged alphabetically, last name first, instead of numerically.
• Optional elements such as author affiliations, original language, notes, etc., may be included here. More information on their placement is available online in National Library of Medicine Recommended Formats for Bibliographic Citation (pdf file).

Examples of CSE Citation-Sequence References Formatting

Books and book parts.

Note: For consistency, book entries should be formatted with the initials of authors and editors first names when the References list includes journal article entries [for which the rule calls for using initials rather than the first names of authors and editors] as well.

1. Book with One Author

Format: Give the author’s last name and first initial with no comma. Next, include the title, capitalizing only the first word and proper nouns, followed by publication information. Include the state abbreviation in parentheses after the city.

1. Leonard, C. The meat racket: the secret takeover of America’s food business. New York (NY): Simon Schuster; 2014.

2. Book with Two or More Authors

Format: List the authors in the order in which they appear on the title page, each of them last name first. (If there are more than 10 authors, list the first ten followed by a comma and “et al.”) Note that periods are not used after initials. Separate authors with commas. When using CSE style, abbreviate “United Kingdom” as “GB.”

2. Willis KJ, McElwain JC. The evolution of plants. 2 nd ed. Oxford (GB): Oxford University Press; 2014.

3. Edited Books or a Work in an Anthology

Format : List the author and title of the section; then include the word “In” followed by a colon, the editor’s name (last name followed by initials) and the word “editor.” Include the book title, place, and publisher, and note the inclusive pages of the section. Note that page range numbers are given in full.

3. Rothenberg M, Clarke MF. Cancer stem cells, In: Carlson BM, editor. Stem cell anthology. London (GB): Academic Press; 2010. p. 221-236.

4. Books with Author, Editor, Translator and Note

Format : Identify the editor(s) before the publication. Identify the translator after the title, giving the last name first.

4a. Einstein, A. The cosmic view of Albert Einstein: writings on art, science, and peace. Martin W, Ott M, editors. New York (NY): Sterling Publishing; 2013.

4b. Schoeps KH. Literature and film in the Third Reich. Dell’Orto KM, translator. Columbia (SC): Camden House; 2010.

5. Microform Books

Format : Entry number. Last name and initial(s) of author, [followed by last names and initial(s) of other authors, if any]. Title of book [type of microtext]. Place of publication: microform publisher; year of publication. Number of reels. Type of film.

5. Fortney, S. Bedrest in healthy women [microfiche]. Springfield (VA): National Technical Information Service; 1986. 2 microfiches: negative.

6. Multivolume Work

Format : Include the total number of volumes if you are making a reference to all volumes in the work, or “Vol.” followed by the specific volume number followed by the title of that volume (if that volume is separately titles).

6. Serway RA, Jewett JW. Physics for scientists and engineers. Vol. 5. 8 th ed. Pacific Grove (CA): Brooks-Cole; 2010.

7. Titled Book Chapter

Format : If you wish to refer to a chapter of a book, identify the chapter of the book after the publication information. End with the inclusive pages of the chapter.

7. Pendergrast M. Inside the outbreaks: the elite medical detectives of the Epidemic Intelligence Service. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2010. Chapter 7, Fighting pox, pandemics, and special pathogens; pg. 72-90.

8. Titled Book Chapter not Written by Book Author

Format : Entry number. Last name and initial(s) of author of chapter or part, [followed by last names and initial(s) of other authors, if any]. Title of chapter or part. In: last name and initial(s) of author or editor of book [followed by last names and initial(s) of other authors or editors, if any]. Title of book. Edition information. Place of publication: publisher; year of publication. Inclusive page numbers.

8. Hansen B. New York City epidemics and history for the public. In: Harden VA, Risse GB, editors. Aids and the historian. Bethesda: National Institute of Health; 1991. p 21-8.

Format: Identify the organization as the author.

9. National Geographic. EarthPulse. 2 nd ed. New York (NY): Wiley; 2010.

Format: Begin with the title.

10. The first 100,000 prime numbers. Lenox (MA): Hard Press; 2007. 215 p.

Format: Note the edition (for instance “2 nd ed.” or “New rev. ed.”) after the title and with a separating period.

11. Roberts N. The holocene: an environmental history. 3 rd ed. Oxford (GB): Wiley Blackwell; 2014.

Format: To cite an anthology of essays or a collection of articles, treat the editor’s name as you would an author’s name but identify with the word “editor.”

12. Carlson BM, editor. Stem cell anthology. London (GB): Academic Press; 2010.

Format: If the part is written by someone other than the author of the book, treat it as you would a chapter in an edited book, identifying the author or editor of the book before the book title.

13. Groopman J. Introduction. In: Cohen J, editor. The best of the best American science writing: ten years of the series. New York (NY): Ecco; 2010; p. ix-xv.

Format: List the editors of the proceedings as authors or, if there are no editors, begin with the name and year of the conference. Then give the title of the publication; the date of the conference; the place of the conference; and the place of publication, publisher, and date.

14. Platts H, Barron C, Lundock J, Pearce J, Yoo J, editors. TRAC 2013. Proceedings of the 23 rd Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference; 2013; London. Oxford (GB): Oxbow Books; c2014; 160 p.

Format: Use the general format for a book, adding the word “dissertation” or “thesis” in square brackets after the title. Treat the institution granting the degree as the publisher. If the place is not listed on the dissertation but can be inferred, use brackets around the place as shown here.

15. Prescott JW. Computer-assisted discovery and characterization of imaging biomarkers for disease diagnosis and treatment planning [dissertation]. [Columbus (OH)]: Ohio State University; 2010; 191 p.

Format: Use the general format for a book, adding the word “dissertation” or “thesis” in square brackets as a final element of the title. Treat the institution granting the degree as the publisher.

16. Wagner KP. A generalized acceptance urn model [dissertation]. Tampa (FL): University of South Florida; 2010.

Scholarly and Professional Journals

Note: When there are between two and ten authors, list all authors in the entry. When there are more than ten, list only the first ten.

1. General Format for Journal Articles

Format : Abbreviate and capitalize all of the major words in a journal’s title; omit articles, conjunctions, and prepositions. The CSE manual includes specific guidelines for citing journal titles. A semicolon separates the year of publication followed by a semicolon and the volume number. If there is an issue number, include it in parentheses, followed by a colon and the page numbers. There are no spaces between the year, volume number, and page numbers.

1. Gauthier S, Leuzy A, Racine E, Rosa-Neto P. Diagnosis and management of Alzheimer’s disease; past present and future ethical issues. Prog Neurobiol. 2013;110:102-113.

Format : List the entry number, the last name and initial(s) of author, followed by last names and initial(s) of other authors, if any]. List the article title and include the type of article in square brackets along with the title of the journal, the year of publication followed by a semicolon, the volume (issue number) followed by a colon and inclusive page numbers.

2. Besho F, Kobayashi N. A historical sketch of pediatric hematology and oncology in Japan [editorial]. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1993; 10(2): v-viii.

Format : List the entry number, last name and itiatial(s) of the author, followed by the last names and initial(s) of other others (if any). List the article title, the title of the journal, the year of publication followed by a semi colon, the volume (issue number) followed by a colon and inclusive page numbers.

3. Besho F, Kobayashi N. A historical sketch of pediatric hematology and oncology in Japan. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1993; 10(2): v-viii.

Format : List the entry number, the last name and initials of the author, followed by the last names and initials of other authors (if any). List the title of the article, the title of the journal, the year of publication, volume number followed by a colon and the the first set of inclusive page numbers, second set, and so on.

4. Weisse AB. A plague in Philadelphia. The story of Legionnaires' disease. Hosp Pract. (Off Ed). 1992; 27(6):151-4,157,161-8.

Format : List the entry number, the last name and initial(s) of the author, followed by the last names and initial(s) of other authors (if any). List the title of the article, the title of the journal, the year of publication followed by a semicolon, the volume (issue number and supplement) followed by a colon and inclusive page numbers.

5. Feindel W. Development of surgical therapy of epilepsy at the Montreal Neurological Institute. Can J Neurol Sci. 1991;18(4 Suppl): 549-53.

Format : List the entry number, the last name and initial(s) of the author, followed by the last names and initial(s) of other authors (if any). List the title of the article, the title of the journal, the year of publication followed by a semicolon, the volume and supplement number followed by a colon and inclusive page numbers.

6. Rahe RH. Psychosocial stressors and adjustment disorder: Van Gogh's life chart illustrates stress and disease. J Clin Psychiatry. 1990; 51 Suppl: 13-9.

Newspaper and Magazine Articles

1. A Signed Article in a Newspaper

Format : Treat newspaper articles as you would magazine articles, identifying their pages by section, page, and column on which they begin (in parentheses).

1. Jalonick MC. Suit says toys in Happy Meals break the law. Boston Globe. 2010 June 23;Sect. B:11 (col. 1).

Format : Begin the entry with the title of the article. “Anonymous” is not permitted in CSE style.

2. A mouse to save your wrist and hand. Boston Globe. 2010 Nov 29;Sect. B:8 (col. 3).

Format : Magazines are not identified by volume. Give only the date (year, month, day for weekly magazines; year and month for monthly magazines). Abbreviate all months to their first three letters.

3. Milius S. In field or backyard, frogs face threats. Sci News. 2010 Sep 11:28-29.

Conference Proceedings, Papers and Abstracts

1. Published Proceedings of a Conference

Format : List the editors of the proceedings as authors or, if there are no editors, begin with the name and year of the conference. Then give the title of the publication; the date of the conference; the place of the conference; and the place of publication, publisher, and date.

1. Platts H, Barron C, Lundock J, Pearce J, Yoo J, editors. TRAC 2013. Proceedings of the 23 rd Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference; 2013; London. Oxford (GB): Oxbow books; c2014; 160;.

Format : Format the citation as you would a chapter in an edited book.

2. Paten B, Diekhans M, Ear D, St. John J, Ma J, Suh BB, Haussler D. Cactus graphs for genome comparisons. In: Berger B, editor. RECOMB 2010. Research in computational molecular biology, 14 th annual international conference proceedings; 2010 Apri 25-28; Lisbon, Portugal. Berlin (DE): Springer-Verlag; c2010; p. 410-425.

Format : List the entry Number, the last name and initial(s) of the author, followed by the last names and initial(s) of other authors (if any). List the title of the abstract followed by “abstract” in square brackets. List “In:” followed by the title of the proceedings or conference; the year month and number of days of the conference; and the location of the conference. List the place of publication: the publisher (capitalized); and the year of publication. List the page numbers and include the abstract number [if available].

21. Willoughby E. A neglected treatise on headache [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the International Conference of the Auckland Medical Historical Society; 1994 Aug; Auckland, New Zealand. Auckland: Pyramid Press; 1995. p 419.

Scientific and Technical Reports

Formats for scientific and technical reports vary according to the organization responsible for the report. Follow the examples in formatting listed below.

1. U.S. Government Report Authored by a Government Agency or Dept.

Format : Entry Number. Name of Agency or Department (US) [Abbreviation of Agency or Department]. Title and description of report. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year and Month of Publication. Number of Pages or Volumes. Availability Statement.

1. Department of Energy, Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety and Health (US) [DOE]. Office of Occupational Medicine. Annual report. Washington, DC: DOE; 1993 Aug. 14 p. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; DE-93018387.

Format : Entry Number. Last Name and Initial(s) of Author, [followed by last names and initial(s) of other authors, if any] (Name of Responsible Organization). Title and description of report. Place of Publication: Publisher or Sponsoring Organization; Year Month and Day of Publication. Report Number. Contract Number. Number of Pages. Availability Information.

2. Lenz TG, Vaughan JD, Cooper LN. (Colorado State University). Study of improved methods for predicting chemical equilibria. Final Report 1 Jan 90-31 Mar 93. Washington: Department of Energy; 1993 Sep. Report nr DOE/ER/13582-T3. Contract nr FG02-86ER13582. 33 p. Available from: NTIS, Springfied, VA; DE-94001647.

Format : Entry Number. Name of Responsible Organization [abbreviation of performing organization]. Title and description of report. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year and Month of Publication. Report Number. Number of Pages.

3. Gas Research Inst. [GRI], Institute of Gas Technology. Computerized operations management. Final report Feb 1992. Chicago (IL): Transport and Storage Research Dept; 1992 Feb. Report nr PB94-12203, PB94-122041. 1009 p. in 2 v.

Dissertations, Theses and Patents

1. Published Dissertation or Thesis

Format : Use the general format for a book, adding the word “dissertation” or “thesis” in square brackets after the title. Treat the institution granting the degree as the publisher. If the place is not listed on the dissertation but can be inferred, use brackets around the place as shown below.

1. Prescott JW. Computer-assisted discovery and characterization of imaging biomarkers for disease diagnosis and treatment planning [dissertation]. [Columbus (OH)]: Ohio State University; 2010; 191 p.

2. Upublished Dissertation or Thesis

Format : Use the general format for a book, adding the word “dissertation” or “thesis” in square brackets as a final element of the title. Treat the institution granting the degree as the publisher.

2. Wagner KP. A generalized acceptance urn model [dissertation]. Tampa (FL): University of South Florida; 2010.

Format : Entry Number. Last Name and Initial(s) of Inventor, [followed by last names and initials of other inventors, if any], inventor(s). Assignee. Title of Patented device or process. Patent descriptor. Year Month Day the Patent Was Issued.

3. Umezawa H, Suzuki S, Ohkuma T, inventors; Zaidan Hojin Biseibutsu Kagaka, assignee. Medical composition for injection containing a spergualin as active ingredient and process for preparing the same notag [stabilizers of dextrans, cyclodextrins, and chodroitin sulfate; anticarcinogenic agents, immunomodulators]. US patent 4,876,244. 1989 Oct 24.

Legal Materials

Note: The NLM ( National Library of Medicine Recommended Formats for Bibliographic Citation ) does not offer its own guidelines for documenting legal references. The CSE instead defers to A Uniform System of Citation (HLRA 1992) and offers the formats below, based on their recommendations.

1. Court Cases

Format : Entry Number. Title of Case, Volume Source Page Numbers (Court and Date).

1. Meyer v. State of Nebraska., 262 U.S. 390 (S.Ct. 625 1923).

Format : Entry Number. Title of Statute, Volume Number Source Section Number § (Year of Publication)

2. Farm Credit Act. 42 U.S.C.A. § 410 (1959)

Note: This example was taken from CSE's Scientific Style and Format (p 663).

Format : Entry Number. Senate Bill Number, Number of Congress, Number of Session Section Number § (Year).

3. S. 2830, 96th Cong., 2d Sess. § 8 (1980).

Format : Entry Number. Resolution Number, Legislature Number, Session Number, Year Collection of Laws

4. H.R.J. Res 1, 40th Leg., 2d Spec. Sess., 1974 Utah Laws 7

Format : Entry Number. Title of Hearing , Number of Congress, Session Number. (Year)

5. U.S. Policy in the Persian Gulf: Hearing Before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations , 101st Cong., 2nd Sess. (1990)

Media Sources

1. Sound Recording

Format : Cite as you would a film or video recording (listed below)

1. Howler monkeys: singing into the night [sound recording]. Carroll B, sound recordist. Keene (NH): Belize Bruce; 2013.

Format : Give the title, then the type of medium identified in square brackets, followed by individuals listed as authors, editors, performers, conductors, and so on. Identify the producer if different from the publisher. Provide publication information, including a physical description of the medium.

2. Great migrations [DVD]. Hamlin D, Serwa C, producers. Washington (DC): National Geographic; 2010. 3 DVDs: 200 min.

Format : CSE style does not provide guidance on citing television programs. Cite the title of the program, with the medium designator in brackets, followed by information about the series (if any), including individuals such as the producer, writer, director, and the place and date of broadcast at the end.

3. Mt. St. Helens: back from the dead [television program]. Barret M, executive producer. Nova. New York (NY): Thirteen/WNET; 2010 May 4.

Format : CSE style does not provde guidance on citing radio programs. Cite the title of the program, with the medium designator in brackets, followed by information about the series (if any), including individuals such as the producer, writer, director, and the place and date of broadcast at the end.

4. Mental exercise and dementia [radio program]. Flatow I, host. Talk of the Nation Science Friday. New York (NY): National Public Radio; 2010 Sep 3.

Digital Sources

Note: The following CSE style formats demonstrate citations for various digital sources.

1. Online Journal Article

1. Pitaval A, Tseng Q, Bornens M, Thery M. Cell shape and contractility regulate ciliogenesis in cell cycle – arrested cells. J Cell Biol. 2010 [accessed 2013 Aug 23]; 191(2):303-312. http//jcb.rupress.org/content/191/2/303.full?sid=d87c638dc-4082-99a8-ca19a37d72fe. doi:10.1083/jcb.201004003.

2. Gliklich RE, Dreyer NA, editors. Registries for evaluating patient outcomes: a user’s guide. 2 nd ed. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2010 [cited 2010 Nov 1]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK49444.

3. Chen M, Schlief M, Willows RD, Cai Z-L, Neilan BA, Scheer H. A red-shifted chlorophyll. Science. 2010 Sep 10 [accessed 2014 Feb 1]:1318-1319. Expanded Academic ASAP. Farmington Hills (MI): Thomson Gale; c2010. http://web4.infotrac.galegroup.com. doi:10.1126/science.1191127.

4. Kolata G. Stem cell biology and its complications. New York Times. 2010 Aug 24 [accessed 2010 Dec 15]. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/25/health/research/25cell.html.

5. US Geological Survey. Washington (DC): US Department of the Interior; [updated 2010 Sep 28; accessed 2010 Dec 16]. http://www.usgs.gov.

6. Lavelle M. National Geographic Daily News. Washington (DC): National Geographic Society. Forcing gas out of rock with water. 2010 Oct 17 [accessed 2010 Dec 16]. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news-old/2010/10/101022-energy-marcellus-shale-gas-science-technology-water.

Note : Email messages are considered personal communication. Cite them in the text only; do not cite them in the reference list.

8. Williams JB. Re: Tomato seed question. In: BIONET. [London (GB); Medical Research Council]; 2010 Nov 1, 7:57 am [accessed 2010 Nov 15]. http://www.bio.net/bionet/mm/plantbio/2010-November/027780.html.

9. Epidemic and pandemic spread. In: Influenza [updated 2014 Mar 1; accessed 2014 Mar 25]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza#Epidemic_and_pandemic_spread.

10. Orth JF. Invasive species weblog. c2002-2010 [updated 2011 Jan 22; accessed 2010 Jan 25]. http://invasivespecies.blogspot.com.

11. Reynolds G. Phys Ed: Brains and Brawn. In: Well. 2011 Jan 19 [accessed 2011 Jan 22.]. http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/01/19/phys-ed-brains-and-brawn.

12. Yang, H. Topics in gravitational-wave science: macroscopic quantum mechanics and black hole physics [dissertation]. Pasadena (CA): California Institute of Technology; 2013; 339 p. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Ann Arbor (MI): ProQuest; c2013. http://search.proquest.com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/docview/1496774506?accountid=11311.

Unpublished Work

Format : Entry number. Last name and initial(s) of letter author(s). [Description and date of letter]. Located at: repository and location of repository.

1. Bacon F. [Letters to various Tudor notables, ca. 1630]. Located at: The James Marshall and Marie-Louise Osborn Collection, Yale University Beineke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New Haven, Connecticut.

Format : Entry number. Title of document. [Description and date of document]. Located at: repository and location of repository.

2. Box account book. [Accounts of wholesale druggist Henry Box, 1629-42]. Located at: The James Marshall and Marie-Louise Osborn Collection, Yale University Beineke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New Haven, Connecticut.

Format : Entry number. Last name and initial(s) of author, [followed by last names and initials of other authors, if any]. Title of forthcoming document. Abbreviated title of journal and year of forthcoming publication (if known). Forthcoming.

3. Pohl PS, Winstein C. Practice effects on the less-affected upper extremity after stroke. J Am Cong Rehab Med. Forthcoming.

Additional CSE Resources

Printed Resources:

Council of Science Editors. Scientific style and format: The CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers. 6th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press; 1994. 825 p.

National Library of Medicine Recommended Formats for Bibliographic Citation/Pb 91182030. United States Government Printing Office; 1991.

Electronic Resources:

The official Council of Science Editors web site, updated regularly, is the comprehensive guide to all things CSE: the organization, its journals, products and services.

The University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center, CSE Documentation

Citation Information

Will Allen, Ellen Palmquist, Peter Connor, Heidi Scott, and Laurel Nesbitt. (1994-2024). Citation Guide: Council of Science Editors (Citation-Sequence System). The WAC Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. Available at https://wac.colostate.edu/repository/writing/guides/.

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Formatting References for Scientific Manuscripts

Srinivas b s kambhampati.

Sri Dhaatri Orthopaedic, Maternity and Gynaecology Center, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India

Lalit Maini

1 Department of Orthopaedics, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India

While references are an essential and integral part of a scientific manuscript, format and style of references are as varied as the number of journals currently present. International Committee of Medical Journal Editors in their latest recommendations for publication, 1 advice authors to quote original references whenever possible. We would recommend the readers to go through these guidelines as they are given in sufficient detail to submit a good set of references including styling. Other resources for citing references include the PubMed section 2 which gives samples of formatting of different reference types and the eBook: Citing Medicine, 3 published by the U. S. National Library of Medicine, which gives assistance and rules to authors, editors, publishers and librarians for formatting of references for different reference types.

References are formatted in two basic styles – the Vancouver style which is numeric (more commonly used in medical journals) and Harvard which uses author-date style (more commonly used in natural and Social sciences journals). 4 Parts and order of the parts cited differ on what the author is citing (reference type) and the journal that is being submitted to. The most common types of references include journal article, book, book section or chapter, dissertation, monograph, and webpage. As an example, for a journal article, the parts of a reference in the sequence include authors, article title, journal title, date of publication, volume, issue, and location/pagination. Each journal has its own modification of the format for each part and the punctuation marks, or their lack of, between the parts. Formatting style in each part of a reference could involve placement of selected punctuation marks, bold and italics enhancements, alphabetical order or sequential ordering of references and style of citing in the text, making the combination of variations that create a unique reference style as large in number as the number of journals currently published. It is not clear why such a system has evolved, but it requires considerable attention to detail to get the formatting correct and is time-consuming for the author. The tradition of the journal has been thought as one of the reasons. 4 In manuscripts submitted for the Indian Journal of Orthopaedics (IJO), the reference section carries the most formatting errors committed by authors.

The advantage of having a constant style within a journal is two-fold, apart from an esthetic appearance of references across all articles published by the journal. Ease of reading the references at the end of each article and ease of finding reference part by the reader if he/she is used to the format and plans to look up the reference. As a student/professional in the medical field, one would require attention to finer details of his/her research work as well as in their clinical practice and hence exercising attention to the references would help improve those skills. Such a wide variation in the styles of references has also benefitted some software companies who deal with reference managers (RMs). Some RMs are free for use, and the authors are advised to use different RMs to see which one suits their needs best. While some RMs are cloud based, others are computer based and do not require an internet connection while some others are cloud and computer based. The variation in the style of references across journals appears unlikely to be standardized to a single universal format in the near future.

The Citation Style Language (CSL) is an XML-based computer language developed to standardize formatting of citations and references in manuscripts submitting to journals. They are text application editable files which are imported into RMs. An increasing number of RMs use CSL to help users format their list of references according to individual journal guidelines. However, not all journals are supported by CSL files.

There are two main repositories for access to CSL files – One by GitHub 5 and the other by Zotero 6 developed by Corporation for Digital Scholarship and Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media. These contain more than 8500 styles of references. Authors using Zotero, Mendeley, RefWorks, Papers, CrossRef, Bibliography, and some 42 other RMs can use these CSL files to manage references within them. IJO did not have a CSL file until now in both the repositories. In this scenario, there are a few options for the authors preparing references for a manuscript. First, to type and style references manually which would take a long time and prone to human errors. Second, a CSL file similar to IJO may be selected from the repository and used and later manually edited, if any needed. However, this involves searching for an exact match of style for a journal registered in the repository of CSL files. Third, there are RMs with inbuilt options to format references while citing in the text. This option is independent of CSL. The disadvantage here is that the author is bound by the list of reference styles already loaded within the software. They may not be able to add new formats. Fourth, some RMs allow authors to prepare a style, but this would take some time to prepare if the style is not already inbuilt. As a fifth option, a CSL file that is close to IJO may be chosen, and the code of this file tweaked with minor editing to convert it for use with IJO. To do that, the author must be familiar with programming or editing of HTML/XML files since HTML is a language that is closer to XML.

Zotero's repository 7 website has a user-friendly interface in which such searches are easier to perform. It has 9357 styles stored in the repository at the time of writing this article on March 17, 2019. There are 1924 unique styles through which one can search if their required journal is listed. Zotero draws CSL files from GitHub into their repository. Hence, if a file is created in GitHub, it is drawn into Zotero by default. CSL Project 8 is a website sponsored by four well known RMs. These are Zotero, Mendeley, 9 Papers, 10 and RefWorks. 11 This website gives detailed specifications and documentation of CSL language if one is interested in coding these files. If one is proficient with XML, they can create a style and submit it to the GitHub website for others to benefit. Editing is easier if one uses the Zotero RM as it has an inbuilt option to edit style. It can be done even in other managers or with the use of a standard text editing application in Windows or Mac operating systems. Once a new CSL file is developed, in order to publish it, it has to be validated by CSL validator website 12 and submitted at the GitHub site for accepting into the repository. Even finer details like number of author names before et al. while formatting reference, punctuation marks and their placement, style of each part of the reference and each style of the reference, etc., can be edited accurately.

Once developed, the output of references and citations is remarkably consistent, and too much time need not be directed to editing the punctuation marks and styling of the references and citations while preparing the manuscript. The only hurdle after this would be to get full details of the references reliably and accurately into the RM database while importing the references. The author needs to check that the references were properly imported into the database. If verified, they may be used any number of times with precision. With appropriate selection, the citing as well as the list of references can be formatted according to the journal that is being considered, for submission. Those who are already using RMs may be well aware of the advantages and the time such CSL files can save while preparing a manuscript.

We are happy to inform that a CSL file for IJO has now been created in the GitHub repository 1 and Zotero Styles repository 3 and it can be used by authors using the RMs listed in the CSL website and benefit from its use. The direct link of the file in the repository is given 13 [ Figure 1 ]. Basic users of RMs may download it through their RMs by selecting Indian Journal of Orthopaedics option. Advanced users who know where to place this file may access using the weblink given. Examples of reference style and citation for IJO are given in Figure 2 .

Screenshot of browser shows the web address and search words used to retrieve Citation Style Language file for Indian Journal of Orthopaedics

Examples of format of references and their citation in text for the Indian Journal of Orthopaedics

Mla Vs. Apa Format: Which Citation Style Should You Use For Science Writing?

When writing a science paper or lab report, using the correct formatting style is critical for properly citing sources and presenting your scientific ideas. The two most common formatting styles are MLA and APA, but which one should you use for science writing?

If you’re short on time, here’s a quick answer to your question: APA format is generally preferred over MLA for science writing . APA provides guidelines optimized for scholarly scientific communications and publications.

In this comprehensive guide, we compare MLA versus APA format for science writing. You’ll learn when to use each style, key formatting differences, and tips for consistently applying the right citations in your science papers.

When to Use MLA vs. APA for Science Writing

Types of science writing.

Science writing encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science. It can take various forms, such as research papers, lab reports, literature reviews, and scientific articles.

Each type of science writing has its own requirements when it comes to formatting and citation styles.

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, art, and language studies. While it is not the most common citation style for science writing, there are situations where MLA may be appropriate.

For example, if you are writing a science paper that focuses on the historical or cultural aspects of a scientific topic, MLA style may be more suitable.

MLA format typically uses in-text citations with the author’s last name and page number, and a Works Cited page at the end of the document. It is important to provide accurate and complete citations to give credit to the original authors and allow readers to locate the sources you used for your research.

APA (American Psychological Association) style is widely used in the social sciences, including psychology, sociology, and education. It is also commonly used in scientific research papers and articles.

APA style provides a clear and concise way to present scientific information and ensure consistency in citations.

In APA format, in-text citations include the author’s last name and the year of publication. A reference list is also included at the end of the document, providing detailed information about each source cited. This allows readers to easily find and verify the sources you used in your research.

When writing scientific papers, it is crucial to follow APA guidelines for citing sources, as it helps maintain the integrity of the research and allows other researchers to build upon your work.

Key Differences Between MLA and APA Format

In-text citations.

One of the key differences between MLA and APA format lies in how in-text citations are handled. In MLA format, the author’s last name and the page number are typically used to cite sources within the text. For example, (Smith 42).

On the other hand, APA format uses the author’s last name and the publication year. For instance, (Smith, 2019). This difference in formatting is important to keep in mind when writing scientific papers, as it ensures proper attribution of sources and allows readers to easily locate the full reference in the bibliography.

Reference Lists

Another significant difference between MLA and APA format is how the reference lists are structured. In MLA format, the reference list is called the Works Cited page, and it is placed at the end of the document.

Each entry is listed alphabetically by the author’s last name and includes the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the medium of publication. In contrast, APA format uses a reference list, which is also placed at the end of the document.

Each entry is organized alphabetically by the author’s last name and includes the author’s name, the publication year, the title of the work, and other publication information.

The use of headings in MLA and APA format also differs. In MLA format, headings are not typically used, as the focus is more on the content and structure of the paper. However, APA format requires the use of headings to organize the content and provide clarity to the reader.

APA format has specific guidelines for the formatting of headings, including the use of different levels (e.g., Heading 1, Heading 2) to indicate the hierarchy of information.

Figures and Tables

MLA and APA format also have different guidelines for the inclusion of figures and tables in scientific writing. In MLA format, figures and tables are often placed within the text, close to where they are mentioned. They are typically labeled as “Fig.” and “Table” followed by a number.

APA format, on the other hand, requires figures and tables to be placed in separate sections at the end of the document. Each figure and table should have a caption that describes the content and a number that corresponds to its order of appearance in the text.

It’s important to familiarize yourself with the specific formatting requirements of MLA and APA format when writing scientific papers. Adhering to the correct citation style ensures that your work is professional, consistent, and easily understandable to your readers.

APA Guidelines for Science Writing

Formatting research papers.

When it comes to formatting research papers in APA style for science writing, there are a few key guidelines to keep in mind. First and foremost, it is important to use 1-inch margins on all sides of the paper. Additionally, the font should be Times New Roman and set to a 12-point size.

The paper should be double-spaced throughout, including the title page, abstract, main body, and references. It is also crucial to include a running head and page numbers on each page.

Writing With Precision

APA style emphasizes clear and concise writing in science papers. When writing in APA style, it is important to be precise and avoid using vague or ambiguous language. This means using specific terminology, providing detailed explanations, and avoiding unnecessary jargon.

Additionally, APA style encourages writers to use active voice, which helps to make the writing more direct and engaging. By using active voice, the writer clearly identifies the subject of the sentence and makes the writing more engaging for the reader.

Using Active Voice

One of the key aspects of APA style for science writing is the use of active voice. Active voice is when the subject of the sentence performs the action, rather than having the action done to it. For example, instead of saying “The experiment was conducted,” APA style encourages writers to say “We conducted the experiment.”

Using active voice not only makes the writing more engaging, but it also helps to clearly identify the responsible party for the action.

Reporting Statistics

When reporting statistics in APA style for science writing, it is important to provide clear and accurate information. This can be done by using appropriate statistical symbols and formatting, such as italicizing variables and using subscripts.

Additionally, APA style requires writers to include relevant information such as means, standard deviations, and sample sizes. It is also important to clearly label figures and tables and provide a thorough explanation of the statistical analysis performed.

This helps to ensure that the reader can easily understand and interpret the data being presented.

Tips for Applying APA Style in Science Writing

Use citation generators.

When it comes to applying APA style in scientific writing, using citation generators can be a great help. These online tools automatically generate citations in APA format for various sources such as books, journals, websites, and more.

They save you time and ensure that your citations are formatted correctly, following the guidelines set by the American Psychological Association. Some popular citation generators include Citation Machine , EasyBib , and BibMe .

By using these tools, you can focus more on your research and writing, knowing that your citations are accurate and properly formatted.

Adhere to APA Paper Structure

When writing scientific papers in APA style, it’s important to follow the prescribed paper structure. The APA format typically includes a title page, an abstract, an introduction, a methods section, a results section, a discussion section, and a references page.

Each section has specific formatting requirements, such as the use of headings, subheadings, and proper citation formats. It’s crucial to familiarize yourself with these requirements and apply them consistently throughout your paper.

This ensures that your work is organized and easy to navigate for readers.

Be Consistent Throughout

Consistency is key when it comes to applying APA style in science writing. This means using the same format and style for all citations and references throughout your paper. Make sure to use the correct punctuation, capitalization, and italics when citing different sources, such as books, articles, or websites.

Additionally, pay attention to the order and formatting of the elements within each citation, including authors’ names, publication dates, titles, and page numbers. Being consistent in your formatting not only enhances the readability of your paper but also shows your attention to detail and adherence to professional standards.

Proofread and Revise

Before submitting your scientific paper, it’s crucial to proofread and revise it for any errors or inconsistencies, including those related to APA style. Carefully review your citations and references to ensure they are complete, accurate, and formatted correctly.

Check for any inconsistencies in capitalization, italics, or punctuation. Additionally, make sure your paper adheres to the overall guidelines of APA style, such as the use of proper headings and subheadings.

Taking the time to proofread and revise your work will help you present a polished and professional scientific paper.

For most science writing, APA format is the preferred citation style over MLA. APA provides specific guidelines that optimize scientific communication and publications.

By understanding when to use APA, adhering to key formatting differences from MLA, following APA science writing tips, and proofreading your citations, you can expertly apply APA style for your research papers, lab reports, and other scientific documents.

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• Have other credible individuals referenced this source or author?
• Book: What have reviews said about it?
• What do you know about the publisher/sponsor? Are they well-respected?
• Do they take responsibility for the content? Are they selective about what they publish?
• Take a look at their other content. Do these other articles generally appear credible?
• Does the author or the organization have a bias? Does bias make sense in relation to your argument?
• Is the purpose of the content to inform, entertain, or to spread an agenda? Is there commercial intent?
• Are there ads?
• When was the source published or updated? Is there a date shown?
• Does the publication date make sense in relation to the information presented to your argument?
• Does the source even have a date?
• Was it reproduced? If so, from where?
• If it was reproduced, was it done so with permission? Copyright/disclaimer included?

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Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report
• INTRODUCTION

Literature Cited Section

Guides from other schools, citation styles & writing guides, "literature cited checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018..

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This is the last section of the paper. Here you should provide an alphabetical listing of all the published work you cited in the text of the paper. This does not mean every article you found in your research; only include the works you actually cited in the text of your paper. A standard format is used both to cite literature in the text and to list these studies in the Literature Cited section.  Hypothetical examples of the format used in the journal Ecology are below:     Djorjevic, M., D.W. Gabriel and B.G. Rolfe. 1987. Rhizobium: Refined parasite of legumes. Annual Review of Phytopathology 25: 145-168.     Jones, I. J. and B. J. Green. 1963. Inhibitory agents in walnut trees. Plant Physiology 70:101-152.     MacArthur, R.H. and E.O. Wilson. 1967. The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.     Smith, E. A. 1949. Allelopathy in walnuts. American Journal of Botany 35:1066-1071. Here is a dissection of the first entry, in the format for Ecology :       Firstauthor, M., D.W. Secondauthor and B.G. Thirdauthor. Year. Article title with only the first letter capitalized. Journal Article Title with Important Words in Caps  volume#(issue# if there is one): firstpage-lastpage. Notice some of the following details:       - the list is alphabetized;     - no first or middle names are listed (the author's first and middle initials are used instead);     - only the first word in the title of the journal article (except for proper nouns) is capitalized;     - different journals use different styles for Literature Cited sections.   You should pay careful attention to details of formatting when you write your own Literature Cited section. For papers published in journals you must provide the date, title, journal name, volume number, and page numbers. For books you need the publication date, title, publisher, and place of publication.

• Bates College Guide to Citing Sources
• American Psychological Association (APA) style A guide to formatting papers using APA from Purdue University.
• APA 2007 Revision of Citation Styles An online revision of the information presented in the fifth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . more... less... This guide serves a resource for citation styles and uniform means of referencing authoritative works.
• APA Documentation (University of Wisconsin-Madison) A quick resource for citing references in papers using the 5th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2001). Provided by The Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
• American Anthropological Association Style Manual Prepared for and preferred by the American Anthropological Association (AAA) using the Chicago Manual of Style. Citation examples listed from pages 10-14. Also recommend consulting the Chicago Manual of Style Online.

• Elements of Style This classic work by William Strunk is intended for use in which the practice of composition is combined with the study of literature. It gives the main requirements of plain English style and concentrates on the rules of usage most often abused.
• IEEE Editorial Style Manual This link will take you to a downloadable version of the IEEE Editorial Style Manual.
• Modern Language Association (MLA) style
• Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab) Easy-to-use site that provides information and examples for using the American Psychological Association (APA) citation and format style and the Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and format style. Also included information about the Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.)
• Include citations that provide sufficient context to allow for critical analysis of this
• work by others.
• Include citations that give the reader sources of background and related material so
• that the current work can be understood by the target audience.
• Include citations that provide examples of alternate ideas, data, or conclusions to
• compare and contrast with this work, if they exist. Do not exclude contrary evidence.
• Include citations that acknowledge and give credit to sources relied upon for this
• Are the citations up to date, referencing that latest work on this topic?
• It is the job of the authors to verify the accuracy of the references.
• Avoid: spurious citations (citations that are not needed but are included anyway);

biased citations (references added or omitted for reasons other than meeting the above goals of citations); excessive self-cites (citations to one’s own work). 

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Note: The APA Publication Manual, 7 th Edition specifies different formatting conventions for student  and  professional  papers (i.e., papers written for credit in a course and papers intended for scholarly publication). These differences mostly extend to the title page and running head. Crucially, citation practices do not differ between the two styles of paper.

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Note: For accessibility purposes, we have used "Track Changes" to make comments along the margins of these samples. Those authored by [AF] denote explanations of formatting and [AWC] denote directions for writing and citing in APA 7. 

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Change the typeface used for your reference list to match the rest of your document. Options include Times New Roman, Arial, and Calibri.

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Scribbr’s Citation Generator is built using the same citation software (CSL) as Mendeley and Zotero, but with an added layer for improved accuracy.

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Describe or evaluate your sources in annotations, and Scribbr will generate a perfectly formatted annotated bibliography .

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• Introduction
• Finding sources

Evaluating sources

• Integrating sources

Citing sources

Tools and resources, a quick guide to working with sources.

Working with sources is an important skill that you’ll need throughout your academic career.

It includes knowing how to find relevant sources, assessing their authority and credibility, and understanding how to integrate sources into your work with proper referencing.

This quick guide will help you get started!

Finding relevant sources

Sources commonly used in academic writing include academic journals, scholarly books, websites, newspapers, and encyclopedias. There are three main places to look for such sources:

• Research databases: Databases can be general or subject-specific. To get started, check out this list of databases by academic discipline . Another good starting point is Google Scholar .
• Your institution’s library: Use your library’s database to narrow down your search using keywords to find relevant articles, books, and newspapers matching your topic.
• Other online resources: Consult popular online sources like websites, blogs, or Wikipedia to find background information. Be sure to carefully evaluate the credibility of those online sources.

When using academic databases or search engines, you can use Boolean operators to refine your results.

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In academic writing, your sources should be credible, up to date, and relevant to your research topic. Useful approaches to evaluating sources include the CRAAP test and lateral reading.

CRAAP is an abbreviation that reminds you of a set of questions to ask yourself when evaluating information.

• Currency: Does the source reflect recent research?
• Relevance: Is the source related to your research topic?
• Authority: Is it a respected publication? Is the author an expert in their field?
• Accuracy: Does the source support its arguments and conclusions with evidence?
• Purpose: What is the author’s intention?

Lateral reading

Lateral reading means comparing your source to other sources. This allows you to:

• Verify evidence
• Contextualize information
• Find potential weaknesses

If a source is using methods or drawing conclusions that are incompatible with other research in its field, it may not be reliable.

Integrating sources into your work

Once you have found information that you want to include in your paper, signal phrases can help you to introduce it. Here are a few examples:

Following the signal phrase, you can choose to quote, paraphrase or summarize the source.

• Quoting : This means including the exact words of another source in your paper. The quoted text must be enclosed in quotation marks or (for longer quotes) presented as a block quote . Quote a source when the meaning is difficult to convey in different words or when you want to analyze the language itself.
• Paraphrasing : This means putting another person’s ideas into your own words. It allows you to integrate sources more smoothly into your text, maintaining a consistent voice. It also shows that you have understood the meaning of the source.
• Summarizing : This means giving an overview of the essential points of a source. Summaries should be much shorter than the original text. You should describe the key points in your own words and not quote from the original text.

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, you must include a citation crediting the original author.

Citing your sources is important because it:

• Allows you to avoid plagiarism
• Establishes the credentials of your sources
• Backs up your arguments with evidence
• Allows your reader to verify the legitimacy of your conclusions

The most common citation styles are APA, MLA, and Chicago style. Each citation style has specific rules for formatting citations.

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Scribbr offers tons of tools and resources to make working with sources easier and faster. Take a look at our top picks:

• Citation Generator: Automatically generate accurate references and in-text citations using Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator, MLA Citation Generator , Harvard Referencing Generator , and Chicago Citation Generator .
• Plagiarism Checker : Detect plagiarism in your paper using the most accurate Turnitin-powered plagiarism software available to students.
• AI Proofreader: Upload and improve unlimited documents and earn higher grades on your assignments. Try it for free!
• Paraphrasing tool: Avoid accidental plagiarism and make your text sound better.
• Grammar checker : Eliminate pesky spelling and grammar mistakes.
• Summarizer: Read more in less time. Distill lengthy and complex texts down to their key points.
• AI detector: Find out if your text was written with ChatGPT or any other AI writing tool. ChatGPT 2 & ChatGPT 3 supported.
• Proofreading services : Have a human editor improve your writing.
• Citation checker: Check your work for citation errors and missing citations.
• Knowledge Base : Explore hundreds of articles, bite-sized videos, time-saving templates, and handy checklists that guide you through the process of research, writing, and citation.