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CELL Biology Assignment

Cell biology- illustrated report, stonebridge college.

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Preview text, unit 5 assignment- cell biology.

Aimee- Nicole Graham Submission Date: 9th June 2021

Section 1 - basic cell structure........................................................... 2.

1 Selected characteristics of living cells....................................................................... 2 1 Compare and contrast Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells and the impact viruses have on them......................................................................................................................... 3 1 Eukaryotic sub-cellular structure and organelles .................................................. 5

Section 2 - Cellular Metabolism...........................................................

2 Role of the cellular membrane.................................................................................... 2 How animal cells use nutrients for growth, movement and cell division........................................................................................................................... ........ 2 Protein Synthesis........................................................................................................... 7 2 Role of Nucleic acid the the nucleus and cytoplasm...............................................

Section 3 – How cells grow and divide.................................................

3 Embryonic stem cells..................................................................................................... 3 Interphase and factors that initiate cell division...................................................... 3 How identical genetic information is passed to daughter cells........................... 3 Compare and contrast cancer cells with normal cells...........................................

Conclusion..................................................................................................................... ...... 12

Recommendations......................................................................................................... .. 13

References.................................................................................................................... ....

Bibliography................................................................................................................... .....

Respiration is an essential characteristic of living organisms as they take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide, known as breathing. Internal respiration occurs as a chemical reaction called cell metabolism, in other words, producing energy by breaking down food and nutrients consumed by the organism, essential for movement. Movement is the final characteristic of every living cell. Humans and animals can move around due to the energy released by cell metabolism enabling running, walking and other physical movement. Plants will also move as they turn their leaves to follow the sun to receive as much light as possible. Cells are unmistakably crucial for life to occur. Working in correlation together making up tissue which then forms organs within the human body such as stomach, heart, lungs and kidneys. These organs vitally form different systems (digestive system) which are fundamentally important for the body to function. All these processes required for life to transpire would not be possible without cells.

(Figure 1. Harte, 2020)

1:2 Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and explain the impact that viruses have on them.

There are 2 distinct types of cells, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. Whilst there are quite a few differences between the two cells, the biggest difference is that Eukaryotic cell has a nucleus, and the prokaryotic cell does not. (See figure 2.)

(Figure 2. Shields,2021)

With a closer look at the Prokaryotic cell, you can see that it does contain a nucleoid which holds the cell's DNA. This nucleoid is not a nucleus, as it is not surrounded by a membrane but by ribosomes, and the plasma membrane. There is also a cell wall protecting the plasma membrane, which is a thin layer, forming the shape of the cell. Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria and archaea and are quite simple in structure, as well as small in size.

Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells, which were around for some time before. In contrast, the eukaryotic cell does have a nucleus which is protected by its membrane and is much complex in structure and larger in size, compared to the Prokaryotic cell. The Eukaryotic cell can be found in animals, plants, and fungi. Both cells contain DNA, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane. However, the eukaryotic cell also contains organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.

Whilst the cells look vastly different, they also perform reproduction process differently. Prokaryotic cells use a process called binary fission during reproduction which involves the cells splitting into two and forming identical cells to pass down to the daughter cells. This is an uncomplicated process which allows prokaryotic cells to reproduce very rapidly. The eukaryotic cell has two process of reproduction- Mitosis and Meiosis. Mitosis has similarities to binary fission as it splits each cell into two, forming identical cells, except mitosis also involves the use of many chromosomes and nuclei. The purpose of Mitosis is to reproduce skin cells for growth and the repair of damaged cells within the body. Meiosis is the process used for sperm cells and egg cells, otherwise known as, gametes. This process involves using all 23 chromosomes from the sperm cell and paring them with the same number of chromosomes from the egg cell, to form the full 46 chromosomes needed to produce a fertilized egg cell ready for growth within the womb.

Both Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells can be affected by a virus cell. Virus cells are made up of DNA (or RNA) and proteins (See figure 3.) and are specific to the types of cells it can infect. A virus cell is not classed as a living cell because it does not follow the 7 characteristics mentioned earlier, except from reproduction in which it requires a host living cell to reproduce. The virus cell will infect the host cell with its DNA and begins reproduction. When the virus cell does reproduce; it then takes over and kills the living cell resulting in disruption of the living cells homeostasis.

packages for cell use. Cytoplasm Holds many materals crutial for the cell to function whilst containing enzymes for metabolic reactions within the cell. Cell membrane Selectively permeable membrane controls what materials enter and exit the cell. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Site of lipid synthesis and involved in transfer of lipids into the cell. Rough endoplasmic reticulum Involved in processing proteins made from ribosomes.

From this broken-down list of organelles and their functions, we can see how every organelle within the cell has a vital role to play in the function and survival of the cell.

Section 2- Cellular Metabolism

2 Role of the cellular membrane

The cell membrane is an extremely important organelle within the cell, crucial for the cell's survival. The cell membrane is selectively- permeable which means It has full control of materials entering and exiting the cell. For materials to enter the cell, and the poisonous waste to exit, the process of diffusion occurs. Some methods of diffusion do not require energy, for example, lipid diffusion. Lipid diffusion is where substances which are allowed into the cell move from a high concentration level to a lower concentration where there is more space. A similar diffusion occurs in the movement of water within the cell, a process called osmosis. Osmosis occurs when the solutions concentration is higher outside of the cell, the water will then move through the cell into a lower concentration of water. This is broken down into three different ways. Isotonic is where both inside and outside of the cell have the same level of concentration which means that there is no movement between them. If the solution is hypertonic, then the concentration is higher than in the cell and will move into a hypertonic solution. Lastly, the term hypotonic Is given to a solution that is of a lower concentration than in the cell where water will move into the cell from that solution. The methods lipid diffusion and osmosis both do not require energy as they are used mostly for movement of water, oxygen and steroids. Other methods of diffusion do require energy as they are moving from a state of low concentration to level of high concentration, this is because they are going against the concentration gradient. One of these methods are called active transport where they use a pump molecule to transport the molecules from one side of the cell membrane through to the other. The final method of diffusion is used to transport larger protein molecules such as starch by using vesicles. When molecules are transported out it is called exocytosis, usually occurring from the golgi body or the rough endoplasmic reticulum. When the materials are entering the cell, they are digested and absorbed in a process called endocytosis.

2 How animal cells use nutrients for growth, movement, and cell division.

The process of respiration is a key element to how animals gain energy for movement, growth, and cell division. Respiration is where oxygen is used to develop food and nutrients into ATP (adenine triphosphate). Adenine triphosphate is created using oxygen and glucose which goes through an anaerobic process called glycolysis. Glycolysis is the formation of glucose, in the cytoplasm, into pyruvic molecules and ATP. Another form of respiration is known as the Kerb Cycle. The kerb Cycle takes place within the mitochondria and is an aerobic process. The pyruvic molecules within the mitochondria are oxidised, forming a compound called Acetyl Coenzyme A and when mixed with oxaloacetic acid they form citric acid. To produce ATP, the citric acid is then oxidised again and returned oxoloacetic acid in a continuous process. (See Figure 5.) When the ATP is created, it can then be used for movement and as a chemical, it can be used for mitosis and meiosis.

(Figure 5, askthescientists, 2021)

2 Protein Synthesis

Protein is a particularly crucial factor in order for cell survival. Proteins are also vital for the structure and the functions within the cells. Cells are able to continuously develop new proteins via a process called protein synthesis. This process is in the form of 2 steps – Transcription and Translation. (See figure 6) Transcription occurs within the nucleus and requires the use of DNA molecules. DNA holds instructions for making proteins and will be copied to form mRNA (Messenger

(Figure 7. Latham, 2021)

Section 3 – How cells grow and divide

3 Embryonic stem cells

Stem cells, referred to as pluripotent, are special. In the beginning of human life, an egg will be fertilized by sperm resulting in an embryo forming. The embryo will then divide and continue to do so until then the embryo develops into a blastocyst which has both an inner and outer mass. The inner mass is where we will find the group of stem cells which, in the beginning, have no specific function. Stem cells are cells which have the ability to develop into other cells used within the body. For example, heart, skin muscle and blood cells. In order for this to happen, stem cells will go through a process called differentiation (See figure 8) which they will then begin to change in metabolism, size, and shape and will be given a purpose. Stem cells are a key factor in the growth and development of cells and human body.

(Figure 8. Bio-Rad, 2021)

3 Interphase and factors that initiate cell division

After learning how cells grow, it is important to know the process of division. Interphase is part of a cell cycle which comprises of 2 parts– interphase and mitosis. The first part, interphase, has 3 areas G1, S and G2. G1 is the growth stage where the cell will grow rapidly, and organelles will synthesise. S is where cells will enter only if they are going to divide, DNA is replicated, and chromatins will thicken and coil. The final part G2 is where the centrioles will replicate whilst RNA and proteins are synthesised. The G2 phase will also either repair or destroy any errors within the cell. (See Figure 9.) There are many factors which affect cell division, both positive and negative. Having sufficient nutrient levels within the cell can encourage cell division whilst helping to prevent issues. Chemical factors have more of a negative effect on cell division such as toxins as they can cause cancer via damaged cells entering cell division and multiplying. Another chemical factor is CDKS (Cyclin Dependant Kinase). CDKS controls the movement of the cell through the stages of interphase via a process called phosphorylation where they will bind to other molecules. For this process to occur the CDKS will rely on cyclins (there are two types of cyclins, G and mitotic) which are proteins that continuously go through periods of synthesis and degradation. This will either encourage activation onto the next stage or deactivation to exit the current stage. As mentioned before, there are 2 types of cyclins. The mitotic cyclins are formed during phase G2 which then bind to CDKS and become MPF (Mitosis Promoting Factor) this will then signal the move to mitosis. There are regulatory proteins within the cell cycle named as P53 and P27. These proteins aim to prevent cancer cells from dividing however, low levels of both proteins will allow cancer cells to develop. P53 will use apoptosis (cell death) whilst p27 may try to stop cells entering S phase within the cycle by binding with CDK and cyclin.

3 Compare and Contrast cancer cells with normal cells

Cancerous cells occur within the body when a normal cell is damaged or mutated. The cancerous cells will continue to develop and take over healthy cells within the body, making early diagnosis of cancer key for human survival. There are genes within the nucleus, and when these genes change, this can cause normal signals within the cells to fail and cell division to continue uncontrollably. This then causes an over production of cells, leading to a tumour which can then develop into more tumours within the body. Cancer cells in comparison to normal cells are vastly different. Below is a table outlining the differences between both cells. Normal Cells Cancer cells A normal cell will consist of 1 nucleus. A cancerous cell will have multiple nuclei. The cytoplasm will be large within normal cells.

The cytoplasm is incredibly smaller within cancerous cells. A normal cell will have a single nucleolus.

A cancerous cell will have multiple, large nucleoles. The chromatins within these cells will be of a fine state.

Whereas chromatin within cancerous cells will be very coarse. A normal cell shape will all be very similar.

Cancerous cells will vary in shape and size.

There are also many functional differences between normal cells and cancerous cells. Healthy cells will communicate as normal with other cells in the body whereas cancerous cells would not, causing cancerous cells to replicate but not be able to differentiate as normal cells would when they take on new functions within the body. Cancerous cells lose the ability to stay within their intended location causing them to enter the bloodstream and spread throughout the body creating multiple damaged cells which in comparison to normal cells would not be able to self-destruct.

By researching this assignment and forming my own illustrated report, I have been able to understand in more detail, the intricate process which take part within my own body, animal cells and plant cells each second of everyday. I have learned the importance of various aspects and functions within the cell in order to grow and develop and process from the first stage of fertilisation to the process of change and cell differentiation. I have been able to widen my knowledge and understanding of Eukaryotic cells and Prokaryotic cells, their purpose and how they differ. I enjoyed learning about the processes and aspects of cell division, specifically mitosis. It is remarkably interesting and eye opening for me to see just how intricate and structured each activity and chemical reaction is within the body and how there are certain aspects which can affect each of the stages and cause a different outcome completely. Through completing this assignment, I have a better understanding of life around me and how important it is to take care of your body (particularly your cells) as they are the fundamentals to a healthy, functioning, human body. Overall, I have had the

opportunity through researching and completing this assignment to better understand the various cells and their functions more widely which I feel will aid me in further research studies.

Recommendations

Whilst this report has widened my knowledge on the various processed at a cellular level. I do acknowledge that I found certain aspects of the research difficult to understand as I was unaware of aspects and scientific acronyms used. I believe that further research into each topic of this report will enable to complete future tasks relating to this report. I am keen to learn more in detail about cell discovery and where they came from to begin with as well as understanding more about cancerous cells and what humans can do or develop to fight these cells from taking over bodies and taking lives. I feel the use of a physical dictionary specific to biology would help me locate and understand terms used within my research so that I can use it accurately within my studies.

Figure 1. Katrina Harte. (2020). 7 characteristics of living things. Available: youtube/watch?v=Umg4io_YrTY. Last accessed 13th March 2021.

Figure 2. Jesslyn Shields. (2021). What's the Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells?. Available: science.howstuffworks/life/cellular- microscopic/prokaryotic-vs-eukaryotic-cells. Last accessed 13th March 2021.

Figure 3. unknown. (2015). What are viruses made of?. Available: pmgbiology/tag/virus/. Last accessed 24th March 2021.

Figure 4. unknown. (2021). Eukaryotic cell structure. Available: sciencetopia/biology/eukaryotic-cell-structure. Last accessed 24th March 2021.

Figure 5. unknown. (2021). Understanding ATP—10 Cellular Energy Questions Answered. Available: askthescientists/cellular-energy-production/. Last accessed 1st April 2021.

Figure 6. Unknown. (2021). A brief review of protein synthesis. Available: sites.duke/missiontomars/the-mission/dna-protein-synthesis/a-brief- review-of-protein-synthesis/. Last accessed 16th April 2021.

Figure7. Kate Latham. (2021). DNA VS RNA. Available: biologydictionary/dna-vs-rna/. Last accessed 27th April 2021.

Multiple Choice

Module : Cell Biology- Illustrated Report

University : stonebridge college.

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