qualitative research topics in clinical psychology

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

Clinical Psychology Research Topics

Stumped for ideas? Start here

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Clinical psychology research is one of the most popular subfields in psychology. With such a wide range of topics to cover, figuring out clinical psychology research topics for papers, presentations, and experiments can be tricky.

Clinical Psychology Research Topic Ideas

Topic choices are only as limited as your imagination and assignment, so try narrowing the possibilities down from general questions to the specifics that apply to your area of specialization.

Here are just a few ideas to start the process:

• How does social media influence how people interact and behave?
• Compare and contrast two different types of therapy . When is each type best used? What disorders are best treated with these forms of therapy? What are the possible limitations of each type?
• Compare two psychological disorders . What are the signs and symptoms of each? How are they diagnosed and treated?
• How does "pro ana," "pro mia," " thinspo ," and similar content contribute to eating disorders? What can people do to overcome the influence of these sites?​
• Explore how aging influences mental illness. What particular challenges elderly people diagnosed with mental illness face?
• Explore factors that influence adolescent mental health. Self-esteem and peer pressure are just a couple of the topics you might explore in greater depth.
• Explore the use and effectiveness of online therapy . What are some of its advantages and disadvantages ? How do those without technical literacy navigate it?
• Investigate current research on the impact of media violence on children's behavior.
• Explore anxiety disorders and their impact on daily functioning. What new therapies are available?
• What are the risk factors for depression ? Explore the potential risks as well as any preventative strategies that can be used.
• How do political and social climates affect mental health?
• What are the long-term effects of childhood trauma? Do children continue to experience the effects later in adulthood? What treatments are available for PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) in childhood?
• What impact does substance use disorder have on the family? How can family members help with treatment?
• What types of therapy are most effective for childhood behavioral issues ?

Think of books you have read, research you have studied, and even experiences and interests from your own life. If you've ever wanted to dig further into something that interested you, this is a great opportunity. The more engaged you are with the topic, the more excited you will be to put the work in for a great research paper or presentation.

Consider Scope, Difficulty, and Suitability

Picking a good research topic is one of the most important steps of the research process. A too-general topic can feel overwhelming; likewise, one that's very specific might have limited supporting information. Spend time reading online or exploring your library to make sure that plenty of sources to support your paper, presentation, or experiment are available.

If you are doing an experiment , checking with your instructor is a must. In many cases, you might have to submit a proposal to your school's human subjects committee for approval. This committee will ensure that any potential research involving human subjects is done in a safe and ethical way.

Once you have chosen a topic that interests you, run the idea past your course instructor. (In some cases, this is required.) Even if you don't need permission from the instructor, getting feedback before you delve into the research process is helpful.

Your instructor can draw from a wealth of experience to offer good suggestions and ideas for your research, including the best available resources pertaining to the topic. Your school librarian may also be able to provide assistance regarding the resources available for use at the library, including online journal databases.

Kim WO.  Institutional review board (IRB) and ethical issues in clinical research .  Korean Journal of Anesthesiology . 2012;62(1):3-12. doi:10.4097/kjae.2012.62.1.3

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Qualitative Methods in Clinical Psychology

Cite this chapter.

• Gloria L. Krahn 4 &
• Debra Eisert 4  

Part of the book series: Issues in Clinical Child Psychology ((ICCP))

422 Accesses

5 Citations

Social science researchers are demonstrating a renewed interest in the use of qualitative methods to develop new knowledge and theory. In this chapter we explore this renewed interest by providing a brief overview of the historical preferences and precedents in research methods and by defining qualitative methods. We describe several of the more popular types of qualitative approaches, discuss criteria for evaluating adequacy of qualitative studies, demonstrate the application of qualitative methods in clinical child psychology, and finally, outline some current resources for training opportunities in qualitative methods.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Unable to display preview.  Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Qualitative Evidence in Pediatrics

Qualitative Methods in Psychotherapy Process Research

Making Meaning Matter: an Editor’s Perspective on Publishing Qualitative Research

Anderson, P. P., & Fenichel, E. S. (1989). Serving culturally diverse families of infants and toddlers with disabilities . Arlington, VA: National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.

Google Scholar  

Ashworth, P. D., Giorgi, A., & deKonig, A. J. J. (Eds.). (1986). Qualitative research in psychology: Proceedings of the International Association for Qualitative Research in Social Sciences. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press.

Banister, P. Burman, E., Parker, I., Taylor, M., & Tindall, C. (Eds.). (1994). Qualitative methods in psychology: A research guide . Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

Barker, R. G., & Wright, H. F. (1955). Midwest and its children . New York: Harper & Row

Beck, C. T. (1990). Qualitative research: Methodologies and use in pediatric nursing. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing , 13 , 193–201.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Biklen, S. K., & Moseley, C. R. (1988). “Are you retarded?” “No, I’m Catholic”: Qualitative methods in the study of people with severe handicaps. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps , 13 (3), 155–162.

Blake, R. L., Jr. (1989). Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in family research. Family Systems Medicine , 7 , 411–427.

Article   Google Scholar  

Bowlby, J. (1969a). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment . New York: Basic Books.

Bowlby, J. (1969b). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2 . Separation: Anxiety and anger . New York: Basic Boo

Bowman, B. B. (1995). Children’s perspectives of disrupted adoption: A qualitative study of lives within the child welfare system. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Oregon.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Burton, L. (1991). Intergenerational patterns which influence the nurturing domain: Infants, parents and grandparents. Presentation at the National Center for Clinical Infant Programs conference, Washington, DC., December 7,1991.

Clarke, L. (1992). Qualitative research: Meaning and language. Journal of Advanced Nursing , 17 , 243–252.

Comte, A. (1998). Early political writings (edited and translated by H. S. Jones). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Cross, T. L., Bazron, B. J., Dennis, K. W., & Isaacs, M. R. (1989). Towards a culturally competent system of care, Vol . 1 . Available from the Georgetown University Child Development Center, 3307 M Street, NW, Washington, DC.

Danzinger, K. (1979). The social origins of modern psychology. In A. Buss (Ed.), Psychology in social context . New York: Irvington.

Fiese, B. H. (1997). Family context in pediatric psychology from a transactional perspective: Family rituals and stories as examples. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 22 (2), 183–196.

Frye, H., & Simeonsson, R. J. (1979). Quantitative and qualitative analyses of moral reasoning in children, adolescents, and adults of similar mental age. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 1 ,197–210.

Gergen, K. (1973). Social psychology as history. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 26 , 309–320.

Gergen, K. (1978). Experimentation in social psychology. European Journal of Social Psychology , 8 , 507–527.

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research . New York: Aldine.

Goldman, S. L., Whitney-Saltiel, D., Granger, J., & Rodin, J. (1991). Children’s representations of “everyday” aspects of health and illness. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 16 , 747–766.

Gottman. J. M. (1979). Marital interaction: Experimental investigations . New York: Academic Press.

Greene, J. C., & Caracelli, V. J. (1997). Defining and describing the paradigm issue in mixed-method evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation , 74 , 5–17.

Habermann-Little, B. (1991). Qualitative research methodologies: An overview. Journal of Neuroscience Nursing , 23 , 188–190.

Harre, R., & Secord, P. F. (1972). The explanation of social behavior . Oxford: Blackwell.

Hayes, N. (Ed.). (1997). Doing qualitative research in psychology . Hove, England: Psychology Press/ Erlbaum.

Henwood, K. L., & Pidgeon, N. F. (1992). Qualitative research and psychological theorizing. British Journal of Psychology , 83 , 97–111.

Huttlinger, K., Krefting, L., Drevdahl, D., Tree, P., Baca, E., & Benally, A. (1992). “Doing battle”: A metaphorical analysis of diabetes mellitus among Navajo people. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 46 , 706–712.

Inman, C. E. (1991). Analyzed interaction in a children’s oncology clinic: The child’s view and parent’s opinion of the effect of medical encounters. Journal of Advanced Nursing , 16 , 782–793.

Kazak, A. (1997). A contextual family/systems approach to pediatric psychology: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 22 , 141–148.

Keeley, S. M., Shemberg, K. M., & Zaynor, L. (1988). Dissertation research in clinical psychology: Beyond positivism? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , 19 , 216–222.

Kistner, J., Eberstein, I. W., Balthazor, M., Castro, R., Foster, K., Osborne, M., Sly, D., & Quadagno, D. (1997). Assessing children’s conceptions of AIDS. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 21 , 269–282.

Krahn, G. L., Eisert, D., & Fifleld, B. (1990). Obtaining parental perceptions of the quality of services for children with special health needs. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 15 , 761–774.

Krahn, G. L., Hallum, A., & Kirne, C. (1993). Are there good ways to give “bad news”? Pediatrics , 91 , 578–582.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Krahn, G. L., & Hartzell, M. S. (1996). Children with special health care needs and managed care in Oregon. Presentation at the American Public Health Association, New York, November 1996.

Krahn, G. L., Hohn, M. F., & Kime, C. (1995). Incorporating qualitative approaches into clinical child psychology research. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology , 24 , 204–213.

LaGreca, A. M., Auslander, W. F., Greco, P., Spetter, D., Fisher, E. G., Jr., & Santiago, J. V. (1995). I get by with a little help from my family and friends: Adolescents’ support for diabetes care. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 20 , 449–476.

La Greca, A. M., & Lemanek, K. L. (1996). Editorial: Assessment as a process in pediatric psychology. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 21 ,137–151.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Lynch, E. W., & Hanson, M. J. (1992). Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families . Baltimore: Brookes.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M (1984). Qualitative data analysis . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Morgan, D. L. (1988). Focus groups as qualitative research . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Needleman, C., & Needleman, M. L. (1995). Qualitative methods for intervention research. American Journal of Industrial Medicine , 29 , 329–337.

Patterson, G. R. (1975). Families: Applications of social learning to family life (rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Patton, M. J. (1991). Qualitative research on college students: Philosophical and methodological comparisons with the quantitative approach. Journal of College Student Development , 32 , 389–396.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods . Newberry Park, CA: Sage.

Quittner, A. L., Tolbert, V. E., Regoli, M. J., Orenstein, D. M., Hollingsworth, J. L., & Eigen, H. (1996). Development of the Role-play Inventory of Situations and Coping Strategies for parents of children with cystic fibrosis. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 21 , 209–235.

Reichardt, C. S., & Cook, T. D. (1979). Beyond qualitative versus quantitative methods. In T. D. Cook & C. S. Reichardt (Eds.), Sage research progress series in evaluation: Vol.1. Qualitative and quantitative methods in evaluation research (pp. 7–32). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Rennie, D. L., Phillips, J. R., & Quartaro, G. K. (1988). Grounded theory: A promising approach to conceptualization in psychology. Canadian Psychology , 29 , 139–150.

Ronai, C. R. (1997). On loving and hating my mentally retarded mother. Mental Retardation , 35 ,417–432.

Schaef, A. W., & Fassel, D. (1988). The addictive organization . San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.

Schroeder, H. W. (1991). Preference and meaning of arboretum landscapes: Combining quantitative and qualitative data. Journal of Environmental Psychology , 11 , 231–248.

Sechrest, L., & Sidani, S. (1995). Quantitative and qualitative methods: Is there an alternative? Evaluation and Program Planning , 18 , 77–87.

Shotter, J. (1975). Images of man in psychological research . London: Methuen.

Smith, J., Harre, R., & Van Langenhove (Eds.). (1995a). Rethinking methods in psychology . London: Sage.

Smith, J., Harre, R., & Van Langenhove (Eds.). (1995b). Rethinking psychology . London: Sage.

Smith, M. L. (1997). Mixing and matching: Methods and models. New Directions for Evaluation , 74 ,73–85.

Spitzer, A., Webster-Stratton, C., & Hollinsworth, T. (1991). Coping with conduct-problem children: Parents gaming knowledge and control. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology , 20 , 413–427.

Stratton, P. (1991). Attributions, baseball and consumer behaviour. Journal of the Market Research Society , 33 ,163–178.

Strauss, A. K. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Rasics of qualitative research . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Todis, B. (1996). Tools for the task? Perspectives on assistive technology in educational settings. Journal of Special Education Technology , 13 , 49–61.

Waitzkin, H. (1990). On studying the discourse of medical encounters. Medical Care , 28 , 473–487.

Webster-Stratton, C., & Spitzer, A. (1996). Parenting a young child with conduct problems: New insights using qualitative methods. In T. H. Ollendick & F. J. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 18, pp. 1–62). New York: Plenum Press.

Weiss, K. L., Marvin, R. S., & Pianta, R. C. (1997). Ethnographic detection and description of family strategies for child care: Applications to the study of cerebral palsy. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 22 , 263–278.

Wicker, A. W. (1985). Getting out of our conceptual ruts: Strategies for expanding conceptual frameworks. American Psychologist , 40 ,1094–1103.

Wicker, A. W. (1989). Substantive theorizing. American Journal of Community Psychology , 17 , 531–547.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Oregon Health Sciences University, Child Development and Rehabilitation Center, Portland, Oregon, 97207-0574, USA

Gloria L. Krahn & Debra Eisert

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Rainbow Babies and Children’s Hospital and Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA

Dennis Drotar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Krahn, G.L., Eisert, D. (2000). Qualitative Methods in Clinical Psychology. In: Drotar, D. (eds) Handbook of Research in Pediatric and Clinical Child Psychology. Issues in Clinical Child Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4165-3_7

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4165-3_7

Publisher Name : Springer, Boston, MA

Print ISBN : 978-1-4613-6869-4

Online ISBN : 978-1-4615-4165-3

eBook Packages : Springer Book Archive

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Acquisition
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Religion
• Music and Media
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Meta-Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Strategy
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Business and Government
• Business and Technology
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Systems
• Economic History
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Administration
• Public Policy
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd edn)

Patricia Leavy Independent Scholar Kennebunk, ME, USA

• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research, second edition, presents a comprehensive retrospective and prospective review of the field of qualitative research. Original, accessible chapters written by interdisciplinary leaders in the field make this a critical reference work. Filled with robust examples from real-world research; ample discussion of the historical, theoretical, and methodological foundations of the field; and coverage of key issues including data collection, interpretation, representation, assessment, and teaching, this handbook aims to be a valuable text for students, professors, and researchers. This newly revised and expanded edition features up-to-date examples and topics, including seven new chapters on duoethnography, team research, writing ethnographically, creative approaches to writing, writing for performance, writing for the public, and teaching qualitative research.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Instant insights, infinite possibilities

80 fascinating psychology research questions for your next project

Last updated

15 February 2024

Reviewed by

Brittany Ferri, PhD, OTR/L

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Psychology research is essential for furthering our understanding of human behavior and improving the diagnosis and treatment of psychological conditions.

When psychologists know more about how different social and cultural factors influence how humans act, think, and feel, they can recommend improvements to practices in areas such as education, sport, healthcare, and law enforcement.

Below, you will find 80 research question examples across 16 branches of psychology. First, though, let’s look at some tips to help you select a suitable research topic.

• How to choose a good psychology research topic

Psychology has many branches that break down further into topics. Choosing a topic for your psychology research paper can be daunting because there are so many to choose from. It’s an important choice, as the topic you select will open up a range of questions to explore.

The tips below can help you find a psychology research topic that suits your skills and interests.

Tip #1: Select a topic that interests you

Passion and interest should fuel every research project. A topic that fascinates you will most likely interest others as well. Think about the questions you and others might have and decide on the issues that matter most. Draw on your own interests, but also keep your research topical and relevant to others.

Don’t limit yourself to a topic that you already know about. Instead, choose one that will make you want to know more and dig deeper. This will keep you motivated and excited about your research.

Tip #2: Choose a topic with a manageable scope

If your topic is too broad, you can get overwhelmed by the amount of information available and have trouble maintaining focus. On the other hand, you may find it difficult to find enough information if you choose a topic that is too narrow.

To determine if the topic is too broad or too narrow, start researching as early as possible. If you find there’s an overwhelming amount of research material, you’ll probably need to narrow the topic down. For example, instead of researching the general population, it might be easier to focus on a specific age group. Ask yourself what area of the general topic interests you most and focus on that.

If your scope is too narrow, try to generalize or focus on a larger related topic. Expand your search criteria or select additional databases for information. Consider if the topic is too new to have much information published on it as well.

Tip #3: Select a topic that will produce useful and relevant insights

Doing some preliminary research will reveal any existing research on the topic. If there is existing research, will you be able to produce new insights? You might need to focus on a different area or see if the existing research has limitations that you can overcome.

Bear in mind that finding new information from which to draw fresh insights may be impossible if your topic has been over-researched.

You’ll also need to consider whether your topic is relevant to current trends and needs. For example, researching psychology topics related to social media use may be highly relevant today.

• 80 psychology research topics and questions

Psychology is a broad subject with many branches and potential areas of study. Here are some of them:

Developmental

Personality

Experimental

Organizational

Educational

Neuropsychology

Controversial topics

Below we offer some suggestions on research topics and questions that can get you started. Keep in mind that these are not all-inclusive but should be personalized to fit the theme of your paper.

Social psychology research topics and questions

Social psychology has roots as far back as the 18th century. In simple terms, it’s the study of how behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior of others. It is the science of finding out who we are, who we think we are, and how our perceptions affect ourselves and others. It looks at personalities, relationships, and group behavior.

Here are some potential research questions and paper titles for this topic:

How does social media use impact perceptions of body image in male adolescents?

2. Is childhood bullying a risk factor for social anxiety in adults?

Is homophobia in individuals caused by genetic or environmental factors?

What is the most important psychological predictor of a person’s willingness to donate to charity?

Does a person’s height impact how other people perceive them? If so, how?

Cognitive psychology research questions

Cognitive psychology is the branch that focuses on the interactions of thinking, emotion, creativity, and problem-solving. It also explores the reasons humans think the way they do.

This topic involves exploring how people think by measuring intelligence, thoughts, and cognition. 

Here are some research question ideas:

6. Is there a link between chronic stress and memory function?

7. Can certain kinds of music trigger memories in people with memory loss?

8. Do remote meetings impact the efficacy of team decision-making?

9. Do word games and puzzles slow cognitive decline in adults over the age of 80?

10. Does watching television impact a child’s reading ability?

Developmental psychology research questions

Developmental psychology is the study of how humans grow and change over their lifespan. It usually focuses on the social, emotional, and physical development of babies and children, though it can apply to people of all ages. Developmental psychology is important for understanding how we learn, mature, and adapt to changes.

Here are some questions that might inspire your research:

11. Does grief accelerate the aging process?

12. How do parent–child attachment patterns influence the development of emotion regulation in teenagers?

13. Does bilingualism affect cognitive decline in adults over the age of 70?

14. How does the transition to adulthood impact decision-making abilities

15. How does early exposure to music impact mental health and well-being in school-aged children?

Personality psychology research questions

Personality psychology studies personalities, how they develop, their structures, and the processes that define them. It looks at intelligence, disposition, moral beliefs, thoughts, and reactions.

The goal of this branch of psychology is to scientifically interpret the way personality patterns manifest into an individual’s behaviors. Here are some example research questions:

16. Nature vs. nurture: Which impacts personality development the most?

17. The role of genetics on personality: Does an adopted child take on their biological parents’ personality traits?

18. How do personality traits influence leadership styles and effectiveness in organizational settings?

19. Is there a relationship between an individual’s personality and mental health?

20. Can a chronic illness affect your personality?

Abnormal psychology research questions

As the name suggests, abnormal psychology is a branch that focuses on abnormal behavior and psychopathology (the scientific study of mental illness or disorders).

Abnormal behavior can be challenging to define. Who decides what is “normal”? As such, psychologists in this area focus on the level of distress that certain behaviors may cause, although this typically involves studying mental health conditions such as depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and phobias.

Here are some questions to consider:

21. How does technology impact the development of social anxiety disorder?

22. What are the factors behind the rising incidence of eating disorders in adolescents?

23. Are mindfulness-based interventions effective in the treatment of PTSD?

24. Is there a connection between depression and gambling addiction?

25. Can physical trauma cause psychopathy?

Clinical psychology research questions

Clinical psychology deals with assessing and treating mental illness or abnormal or psychiatric behaviors. It differs from abnormal psychology in that it focuses more on treatments and clinical aspects, while abnormal psychology is more behavioral focused.

This is a specialty area that provides care and treatment for complex mental health conditions. This can include treatment, not only for individuals but for couples, families, and other groups. Clinical psychology also supports communities, conducts research, and offers training to promote mental health. This category is very broad, so there are lots of topics to explore.

Below are some example research questions to consider:

26. Do criminals require more specific therapies or interventions?

27. How effective are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treating mental health disorders?

28. Are there any disadvantages to humanistic therapy?

29. Can group therapy be more beneficial than one-on-one therapy sessions?

30. What are the factors to consider when selecting the right treatment plan for patients with anxiety?

Experimental psychology research questions

Experimental psychology deals with studies that can prove or disprove a hypothesis. Psychologists in this field use scientific methods to collect data on basic psychological processes such as memory, cognition, and learning. They use this data to test the whys and hows of behavior and how outside factors influence its creation.

Areas of interest in this branch relate to perception, memory, emotion, and sensation. The below are example questions that could inspire your own research:

31. Do male or female parents/carers have a more calming influence on children?

32. Will your preference for a genre of music increase the more you listen to it?

33. What are the psychological effects of posting on social media vs. not posting?

34. How is productivity affected by social connection?

35. Is cheating contagious?

Organizational psychology research questions

Organizational psychology studies human behavior in the workplace. It is most frequently used to evaluate an employee, group, or a company’s organizational dynamics. Researchers aim to isolate issues and identify solutions.

This area of study can be beneficial to both employees and employers since the goal is to improve the overall work environment and experience. Researchers apply psychological principles and findings to recommend improvements in performance, communication, job satisfaction, and safety. 

Some potential research questions include the following:

36. How do different leadership styles affect employee morale?

37. Do longer lunch breaks boost employee productivity?

38. Is gender an antecedent to workplace stress?

39. What is the most effective way to promote work–life balance among employees?

40. How do different organizational structures impact the effectiveness of communication, decision-making, and productivity?

Forensic psychology research questions

Some questions to consider exploring in this branch of psychology are:

41. How does incarceration affect mental health?

42. Is childhood trauma a driver for criminal behavior during adulthood?

43. Are people with mental health conditions more likely to be victims of crimes?

44. What are the drivers of false memories, and how do they impact the justice system?

45. Is the media responsible for copycat crimes?

Educational psychology research questions

Educational psychology studies children in an educational setting. It covers topics like teaching methods, aptitude assessment, self-motivation, technology, and parental involvement.

Research in this field of psychology is vital for understanding and optimizing learning processes. It informs educators about cognitive development, learning styles, and effective teaching strategies.

Here are some example research questions:

46. Are different teaching styles more beneficial for children at different times of the day?

47. Can listening to classical music regularly increase a student’s test scores?

48. Is there a connection between sugar consumption and knowledge retention in students?

49. Does sleep duration and quality impact academic performance?

50. Does daily meditation at school influence students’ academic performance and mental health?

Sports psychology research question examples

Sport psychology aims to optimize physical performance and well-being in athletes by using cognitive and behavioral practices and interventions. Some methods include counseling, training, and clinical interventions.

Research in this area is important because it can improve team and individual performance, resilience, motivation, confidence, and overall well-being

Here are some research question ideas for you to consider:

51. How can a famous coach affect a team’s performance?

52. How can athletes control negative emotions in violent or high-contact sports?

53. How does using social media impact an athlete’s performance and well-being?

54. Can psychological interventions help with injury rehabilitation?

55. How can mindfulness practices boost sports performance?

Cultural psychology research question examples

The premise of this branch of psychology is that mind and culture are inseparable. In other words, people are shaped by their cultures, and their cultures are shaped by them. This can be a complex interaction.

Cultural psychology is vital as it explores how cultural context shapes individuals’ thoughts, behaviors, and perceptions. It provides insights into diverse perspectives, promoting cross-cultural understanding and reducing biases.

Here are some ideas that you might consider researching:

56. Are there cultural differences in how people perceive and deal with pain?

57. Are different cultures at increased risk of developing mental health conditions?

58. Are there cultural differences in coping strategies for stress?

59. Do our different cultures shape our personalities?

60. How does multi-generational culture influence family values and structure?

Health psychology research question examples

Health psychology is a crucial field of study. Understanding how psychological factors influence health behaviors, adherence to medical treatments, and overall wellness enables health experts to develop effective interventions and preventive measures, ultimately improving health outcomes.

Health psychology also aids in managing stress, promoting healthy behaviors, and optimizing mental health, fostering a holistic approach to well-being.

Here are five ideas to inspire research in this field:

61. How can health psychology interventions improve lifestyle behaviors to prevent cardiovascular diseases?

62. What role do social norms play in vaping among adolescents?

63. What role do personality traits play in the development and management of chronic pain conditions?

64. How do cultural beliefs and attitudes influence health-seeking behaviors in diverse populations?

65. What are the psychological factors influencing the adherence to preventive health behaviors, such as vaccination and regular screenings?

Neuropsychology research paper question examples

Neuropsychology research explores how a person’s cognition and behavior are related to their brain and nervous system. Researchers aim to advance the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and cognitive effects of neurological disorders.

Researchers may work with children facing learning or developmental challenges, or with adults with declining cognitive abilities. They may also focus on injuries or illnesses of the brain, such as traumatic brain injuries, to determine the effect on cognitive and behavioral functions.

Neuropsychology informs diagnosis and treatment strategies for conditions such as dementia, traumatic brain injuries, and psychiatric disorders. Understanding the neural basis of behavior enhances our ability to optimize cognitive functioning, rehabilitate people with brain injuries, and improve patient care.

Here are some example research questions to consider:

66. How do neurotransmitter imbalances in specific brain regions contribute to mood disorders such as depression?

67. How can a traumatic brain injury affect memory?

68. What neural processes underlie attention deficits in people with ADHD?

69. Do medications affect the brain differently after a traumatic brain injury?

70. What are the behavioral effects of prolonged brain swelling?

Psychology of religion research question examples

The psychology of religion is a field that studies the interplay between belief systems, spirituality, and mental well-being. It explores the application of the psychological methods and interpretive frameworks of religious traditions and how they relate to both religious and non-religious people.

Psychology of religion research contributes to a holistic understanding of human experiences. It fosters cultural competence and guides therapeutic approaches that respect diverse spiritual beliefs.

Here are some example research questions in this field:

71. What impact does a religious upbringing have on a child’s self-esteem?

72. How do religious beliefs shape decision-making and perceptions of morality?

73. What is the impact of religious indoctrination?

74. Is there correlation between religious and mindfulness practices?

75. How does religious affiliation impact attitudes towards mental health treatment and help-seeking behaviors?

Controversial topics in psychology research question examples

Some psychology topics don’t fit into any of the subcategories above, but they may still be worthwhile topics to consider. These topics are the ones that spark interest, conversation, debate, and disagreement. They are often inspired by current issues and assess the validity of older research.

Consider some of these research question examples:

76. How does the rise in on-screen violence impact behavior in adolescents.

77. Should access to social media platforms be restricted in children under the age of 12 to improve mental health?

78. Are prescription mental health medications over-prescribed in older adults? If so, what are the effects of this?

79. Cognitive biases in AI: what are the implications for decision-making?

80. What are the psychological and ethical implications of using virtual reality in exposure therapy for treating trauma-related conditions?

• Inspiration for your next psychology research project

You can choose from a diverse range of research questions that intersect and overlap across various specialties.

From cognitive psychology to clinical studies, each inquiry contributes to a deeper understanding of the human mind and behavior. Importantly, the relevance of these questions transcends individual disciplines, as many findings offer insights applicable across multiple areas of study.

As health trends evolve and societal needs shift, new topics emerge, fueling continual exploration and discovery. Diving into this ever-changing and expanding area of study enables you to navigate the complexities of the human experience and pave the way for innovative solutions to the challenges of tomorrow.

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 18 April 2023

Last updated: 27 February 2023

Last updated: 22 August 2024

Last updated: 30 September 2024

Last updated: 16 August 2024

Last updated: 9 March 2023

Last updated: 30 April 2024

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 4 July 2024

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 5 March 2024

Last updated: 13 May 2024

Latest articles

Related topics, .css-je19u9{-webkit-align-items:flex-end;-webkit-box-align:flex-end;-ms-flex-align:flex-end;align-items:flex-end;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-box-flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;justify-content:center;row-gap:0;text-align:center;max-width:671px;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}}@media (max-width: 799px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}} decide what to .css-1kiodld{max-height:56px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-1kiodld{display:none;}} build next, decide what to build next, log in or sign up.

Get started for free

Log in using your username and password

• Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
• Latest content
• Topic collections
• BMJ Journals

You are here

• Volume 13, Issue 2
• Qualitative Research Methods in Mental Health
• Article Text
• Article info
• Citation Tools
• Rapid Responses
• Article metrics

• Sarah Peters
• Correspondence to : Dr Sarah Peters, School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Manchester, Coupland Building 1, Oxford Road M13 9PL, UK; sarah.peters{at}manchester.ac.uk

As the evidence base for the study of mental health problems develops, there is a need for increasingly rigorous and systematic research methodologies. Complex questions require complex methodological approaches. Recognising this, the MRC guidelines for developing and testing complex interventions place qualitative methods as integral to each stage of intervention development and implementation. However, mental health research has lagged behind many other healthcare specialities in using qualitative methods within its evidence base. Rigour in qualitative research raises many similar issues to quantitative research and also some additional challenges. This article examines the role of qualitative methods within mental heath research, describes key methodological and analytical approaches and offers guidance on how to differentiate between poor and good quality qualitative research.

https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmh.13.2.35

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

The trajectory of qualitative methods in mental health research

Qualitative methodologies have a clear home within the study of mental health research. Early and, arguably, seminal work into the study of mental illnesses and their management was based on detailed observation, moving towards theory using inductive reasoning. Case studies have been long established in psychiatry to present detailed analysis of unusual cases or novel treatments. Participant observation was the principle method used in Goffman's seminal study of psychiatric patients in asylums that informed his ideas about the institutionalising and medicalising of mental illness by medical practice. 1 However, the 20th century saw the ‘behaviourist revolution’, a movement where quantification and experimentation dominated. Researchers sought to identify cause and effects, and reasoning became more deductive – seeking to use data to confirm theory. The study of health and illness was determined by contemporary thinking about disease, taking a biomedical stance. Psychologists and clinical health researchers exploited natural science methodologies, attempting to measure phenomenon in their smallest entities and do so as objectively as possible. This reductionist and positivist philosophy shaped advances in research methods and meant that qualitative exploration failed to develop as a credible scientific approach. Indeed, ‘objectivity’ and the ‘discovery of truth’ have become synonymous with ‘scientific enquiry’ and qualitative methods are easily dismissed as ‘anecdotal’. The underlying epistemology of this approach chimes well with medical practice for which training is predominately in laboratory and basic sciences (such as physics and chemistry) within which the discourse of natural laws dominate. To this end, research in psychiatry still remains overwhelmingly quantitative. 2

Underlying all research paradigms are assumptions. However, most traditional researchers remain unaware of these until they start to use alternative paradigms. Key assumptions of quantitative research are that facts exist that can be quantified and measured and that these should be examined, as far as possible, objectively, partialling out or controlling for the context within which they exist. There are research questions within mental health where this approach can hold: where phenomenon of interest can be reliably and meaningfully quantified and measured, it is feasible to use data to test predictions and examine change. However, for many questions these assumptions prove unsatisfying. It is often not possible or desirable to try and create laboratory conditions for the research; indeed it would be ecologically invalid to do so. For example, to understand the experience of an individual who has been newly diagnosed with schizophrenia, it is clearly important to consider the context within which they live, their family, social grouping and media messages they are exposed to. Table 1 depicts the key differences between the two methodological approaches and core underlying assumptions for each.

• View inline

Comparison of underlying assumptions of quantitative and qualitative research approaches

It should be cautioned that it is easy to fall into the trap of categorising studies as either quantitative or qualitative. The two traditions are often positioned within the literature as opposing and in conflict. This division is unhelpful and likely to impede methodological advancement. Though, undeniably, there are differences in the two approaches to research, there are also many exceptions that expose this dichotomy to be simplistic: some qualitative studies seek to test a priori hypotheses, and some quantitative studies are atheoretical and exploratory. 3 Hence it is more useful to consider research methodologies as lying along a spectrum and that researchers should be familiar with the full range of methodologies, so that a method is chosen according to the research question rather than the researcher's ability.

Rationale for qualitative methods in current mental health research

There are a number of scientific, practical and ethical reasons why mental health is an area that can particularly benefit from qualitative enquiry. Mental health research is complex. Health problems are multifactorial in their aetiology and the consequences they have on the individual, families and societies. Management can involve self-help, pharmacological, educative, social and psychotherapeutic approaches. Services involved are often multidisciplinary and require liaison between a number of individuals including professionals, service-users and relatives. Many problems are exacerbated by poor treatment compliance and lack of access to, or engagement with, appropriate services. 4

Engagement with mental health research can also be challenging. Topics may be highly sensitive or private. Individuals may have impaired capacity or be at high risk. During the research process there may be revelations of suicidal ideation or criminal activity. Hence mental health research can raise additional ethical issues. In other cases scepticism of services makes for reluctant research participants. However, if we accept the case that meaningful research can be based in subjective enquiry then qualitative methods provide a way of giving voice to participants. Qualitative methods offer an effective way of involving service-users in developing interventions for mental health problems 5 ensuring that the questions asked are meaningful to individuals. This may be particularly beneficial if participants are stakeholders, for example potential users of a new service.

Qualitative methods are valuable for individuals who have limited literacy skills who struggle with pencil and paper measures. For example qualitative research has proved fruitful in understanding children's concepts of mental illness and associated services. 6

How qualitative enquiry is used within mental health research

There are a range of types of research question where qualitative methods prove useful – from the development and testing of theory, to the piloting and establishing efficacy of treatment approaches, to understanding issues around translation and implementation into routine practice. Each is discussed in turn.

Development and testing of theory

Qualitative methods are important in exploratory work and in generating understanding of a phenomenon, stimulating new ideas or building new theory. For example, stigma is a concept that is recognised as a barrier to accessing services and also an added burden to mental health. A focus-group study sought to understand the meaning of stigma from the perspectives of individuals with schizophrenia, their relatives and health professionals. 7 From this they developed a four-dimensional theory which has subsequently informed interventions to reduce stigma and discrimination that target not only engagement with psychiatric services but also interactions with the public and work. 7

Development of tools and measures

Qualitative methods access personal accounts, capturing how individuals talk about a lived experience. This can be invaluable for designing new research tools. For example, Mavaddat and colleagues used focus groups with 56 patients with severe or common mental health problems to explore their experiences of primary care management. 8 Nine focus groups were conducted and analysis identified key themes. From these, items were generated to form a Patient Experience Questionnaire, of which the psychometric properties were subsequently examined quantitatively in a larger sample. Not only can dimensions be identified, the rich qualitative data provide terminology that is meaningful to service users that can then be incorporated into question items.

Development and testing of interventions

As we have seen, qualitative methods can inform the development of new interventions. The gold-standard methodology for investigating treatment effectiveness is the randomised controlled trial (RCT), with the principle output being an effect size or demonstration that the primary outcome was significantly improved for participants in the intervention arm compared with those in the control/comparison arm. Nevertheless, what will be familiar for researchers and clinicians involved in trials is that immense research and clinical learning arises from these substantial, often lengthy and expensive research endeavours. Qualitative methods provide a means to empirically capture these lessons, whether they are about recruitment, therapy training/supervision, treatment delivery or content. These data are essential to improve the feasibility and acceptability of further trials and developing the intervention. Conducting qualitative work prior to embarking on an RCT can inform the design, delivery and recruitment, as well as engage relevant stakeholders early in the process; all of these can prevent costly errors. Qualitative research can also be used during a trial to identify reasons for poor recruitment: in one RCT, implementing findings from this type of investigation led to an increased randomisation rate from 40% to 70%. 9

Nesting qualitative research within a trial can be viewed as taking out an insurance policy as data are generated which can later help explain negative or surprising findings. A recent trial of reattribution training for GPs to manage medically unexplained symptoms demonstrated substantial improvements in GP consultation behaviour. 10 However, effects on clinical outcomes were counterintuitive. A series of nested qualitative studies helped shed light as to why this was the case: patients' illness models were complex, and they resisted engaging with GPs (who they perceived as having more simplistic and dualistic understanding) because they were anxious it would lead to non-identification or misdiagnosis of any potential future disease 11 , an issue that can be addressed in future interventions. Even if the insights are unsurprising to those involved in the research, the data collected have been generated systematically and can be subjected to peer review and disseminated. For this reason, there is an increasing expectation from funding bodies that qualitative methodologies are integral to psychosocial intervention research.

Translation and implementation into clinical practice

Trials provide limited information about how treatments can be implemented into clinical practice or applied to another context. Psychological interventions are more effective when delivered within trial settings by experts involved in their development than when they are delivered within clinical settings. 12 Qualitative methods can help us understand how to implement research findings into routine practice. 13

Understanding what stakeholders value about a service and what barriers exist to its uptake is another evidence base to inform clinicians' practice. Relapse prevention is an effective psychoeducation approach that helps individuals with bipolar disorder extend time to relapse. Qualitative methodologies identified which aspects of the intervention service-users and care-coordinators value, and hence, are likely to utilise in routine care. 14 The intervention facilitated better understanding of bipolar disorder (by both parties), demonstrating, in turn, a rationale for medication. Patients discovered new, empowering and less socially isolated ways of managing their symptoms, which had important impacts on interactions with healthcare staff and family members. Furthermore, care-coordinators' reported how they used elements of the intervention when working with clients with other diagnoses. The research also provided insights as to where difficulties may occur when implementing a particular intervention into routine care. For example, for care-coordinators this proved a novel way of working with clients that was more emotionally demanding, thus highlighting the need for supervision and managerial support. 14

Beginners guide to qualitative approaches: one size doesn't fit all

Just as there is a range of quantitative research designs and statistical analyses to choose from, so there are many types of qualitative methods. Choosing a method can be daunting to an inexperienced or beginner-level qualitative researcher, for it requires engaging with new terms and ways of thinking about knowledge. The following summary sets out analytic and data-generation approaches that are used commonly in mental health research. It is not intended to be comprehensive and is provided only as a point of access/familiarisation to researchers less familiar with the literature.

Data generation

Qualitative data are generated in several ways. Most commonly, researchers seek a sample and conduct a series of individual in-depth interviews, seeking participants' views on topics of interest. Typically these last upwards of 45 min and are organised on the basis of a schedule of topics identified from the literature or pilot work. This does not act as a questionnaire, however; rather, it acts as a flexible framework for exploring areas of interest. The researcher combines open questions to elicit free responses, with focused questions for probing and prompting participants to provide effective responses. Usually interviews are audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for subsequent analysis.

As interviews are held in privately, and on one-to-one basis, they provide scope to develop a trusting relationship so that participants are comfortable disclosing socially undesirable views. For example, in a study of practice nurses views of chronic fatigue syndrome, some nurses described patients as lazy or illegitimate – a view that challenges the stereotype of a nursing professional as a sympathetic and caring person. 15 This gives important information about the education and supervision required to enable or train general nurses to ensure that they are capable of delivering psychological interventions for these types of problems.

Alternatively, groups of participants are brought together for a focus group, which usually lasts for 2 hours. Although it is tempting to consider focus groups as an efficient way of acquiring data from several participants simultaneously, there are disadvantages. They are difficult to organise for geographically dispersed or busy participants, and there are compromises to confidentiality, particularly within ‘captive’ populations (eg, within an organisation individuals may be unwilling to criticise). Group dynamics must be considered; the presence of a dominant or self-professed expert can inhibit the group and, therefore, prevent useful data generation. When the subject mater is sensitive, individuals may be unwilling to discuss experiences in a group, although it often promotes a shared experience that can be empowering. Most of these problems are avoided by careful planning of the group composition and ensuring the group is conducted by a highly skilled facilitator. Lester and colleagues 16 used focus-group sessions with patients and health professionals to understand the experience of dealing with serious mental illness. Though initially participants were observed via focus-group sessions that used patient-only and health professional only groups, subsequently on combined focus groups were used that contained both patients and health professionals. 16 The primary advantage of focus groups is that they enable generation of data about how individuals discuss and interact about a phenomenon; thus, a well-conducted focus group can be an extremely rich source of data.

A different type of data are naturally occurring dialogue and behaviours. These may be recorded through observation and detailed field notes (see ethnography in Table 2 ) or analysed from audio/ video-recordings. Other data sources include texts, for example, diaries, clinical notes, Internet blogs and so on. Qualitative data can even be generated through postal surveys. We thematically analysed responses to an open-ended question set within a survey about medical educators' views of behavioural and social sciences (BSS). 17 From this, key barriers to integrating BSS within medical training were identified, which included an entrenched biomedical mindset. The themes were analysed in relation to existing literature and revealed that despite radical changes in medical training, the power of the hidden curriculum persists. 17

Key features of a range of analytical approaches used within mental health research

Analysing qualitative data

Researchers bring a wide range of analytical approaches to the data. A comprehensive and detailed discussion of the philosophy underlying different methods is beyond the scope of this paper; however, a summary of the key analytical approaches used in mental health research are provided in Table 2 . An illustrative example is provided for each approach to offer some insight into the commonalities and differences between methodologies. The procedure for analysis for all methods involves successive stages of data familiarisation/immersion, followed by seeking and reviewing patterns within the data, which may then be defined and categorized as specific themes. Researchers move back and forth between data generation and analysis, confirming or disconfirming emerging ideas. The relationship of the analysis to theory-testing or theory-building depends on the methodology used.

Some approaches are more common in healthcare than others. Interpretative phenomenological (lPA) analysis and thematic analysis have proved particularly popular. In contrast, ethnographic research requires a high level of researcher investment and reflexivity and can prove challenging for NHS ethic committees. Consequently, it remains under used in healthcare research.

Recruitment and sampling

Quantitative research is interested in identifying the typical, or average. By contrast, qualitative research aims to discover and examine the breadth of views held within a community. This includes extreme or deviant views and views that are absent. Consequently, qualitative researchers do not necessarily (though in some circumstances they may) seek to identify a representative sample. Instead, the aim may be to sample across the range of views. Hence, qualitative research can comment on what views exist and what this means, but it is not possible to infer the proportions of people from the wider population that hold a particular view.

However, sampling for a qualitative study is not any less systematic or considered. In a quantitative study one would take a statistical approach to sampling, for example, selecting a random sample or recruiting consecutive referrals, or every 10th out-patient attendee. Qualitative studies, instead, often elect to use theoretical means to identify a sample. This is often purposive; that is, the researcher uses theoretical principles to choose the attributes of included participants. Healey and colleagues conducted a study to understand the reasons for individuals with bipolar disorder misusing substances. 18 They sought to include participants who were current users of each substance group, and the recruitment strategy evolved to actively target specific cases.

Qualitative studies typically use far smaller samples than quantitative studies. The number varies depending on the richness of the data yielded and the type of analytic approach that can range from a single case to more than 100 participants. As with all research, it is unethical to recruit more participants than needed to address the question at hand; a qualitative sample should be sufficient for thematic saturation to be achieved from the data.

Ensuring that findings are valid and generalisable

A common question from individuals new to qualitative research is how can findings from a study of few participants be generalised to the wider population? In some circumstances, findings from an individual study (quantitative or qualitative) may have limited generalisability; therefore, more studies may need to be conducted, in order to build local knowledge that can then be tested or explored across similar groups. 4 However, all qualitative studies should create new insights that have theoretical or clinical relevance which enables the study to extend understanding beyond the individual participants and to the wider population. In some cases, this can lead to generation of new theory (see grounded theory in Table 2 ).

Reliability and validity are two important ways of ascertaining rigor in quantitative research. Qualitative research seeks to understand individual construction and, by definition, is subjective. It is unlikely, therefore, that a study could ever be repeated with exactly the same circumstances. Instead, qualitative research is concerned with the question of whether the findings are trustworthy; that is, if the same circumstances were to prevail, would the same conclusions would be drawn?

There are a number of ways to maximise trustworthiness. One is triangulation, of which there are three subtypes. Data triangulation involves using data from several sources (eg, interviews, documentation, observation). A research team may include members from different backgrounds (eg, psychology, psychiatry, sociology), enabling a range of perspectives to be used within the discussion and interpretation of the data. This is termed researcher triangulation . The final subtype, theoretical triangulation, requires using more than one theory to examine the research question. Another technique to establish the trustworthiness of the findings is to use respondent validation. Here, the final or interim analysis is presented to members of the population of interest to ascertain whether interpretations made are valid.

An important aspect of all qualitative studies is researcher reflexivity. Here researchers consider their role and how their experience and knowledge might influence the generation, analysis and interpretation of the data. As with all well-conducted research, a clear record of progress should be kept – to enable scrutiny of recruitment, data generation and development of analysis. However, transparency is particularly important in qualitative research as the concepts and views evolve and are refined during the process.

Judging quality in qualitative research

Within all fields of research there are better and worse ways of conducting a study, and range of quality in mental health qualitative research is variable. Many of the principles for judging quality in qualitative research are the same for judging quality in any other type of research. However, several guidelines have been developed to help readers, reviewers and editors who lack methodological expertise to feel more confident in appraising qualitative studies. Guidelines are a prerequisite for the relatively recent advance of methodologies for systematic reviewing of qualitative literature (see meta-synthesis in Table 2 ). Box 1 provides some key questions that should be considered while studying a qualitative report.

Box 1 Guidelines for authors and reviewers of qualitative research (adapted from Malterud 35 )

▶ Is the research question relevant and clearly stated?

Reflexivity

▶ Are the researcher's motives and background presented?

Method, sampling and data collection

▶ Is a qualitative method appropriate and justified?

▶ Is the sampling strategy clearly described and justified?

▶ Is the method for data generation fully described

▶ Are the characteristics of the sample sufficiently described?

Theoretical framework

▶ Was a theoretical framework used and stated?

▶ Are the principles and procedures for data organisation and analysis described and justified?

▶ Are strategies used to test the trustworthiness of the findings?

▶ Are the findings relevant to the aim of the study?

▶ Are data (e.g. quotes) used to support and enrich the findings?

▶ Are the conclusions directly linked to the study? Are you convinced?

▶ Do the findings have clinical or theoretical value?

▶ Are findings compared to appropriate theoretical and empirical literature?

▶ Are questions about the internal and external validity and reflexivity discussed?

▶ Are shortcomings of the design, and the implications these have on findings, examined?

▶ Are clinical/theoretical implications of the findings made?

Presentation

▶ Is the report understandable and clearly contextualised?

▶ Is it possible to distinguish between the voices of informants and researchers?

▶ Are sources from the field used and appropriately referenced?

Conclusions and future directions

Qualitative research has enormous potential within the field of mental health research, yet researchers are only beginning to exploit the range of methods they use at each stage of enquiry. Strengths of qualitative research primarily lie in developing theory and increasing understanding about effective implementation of treatments and how best to support clinicians and service users in managing mental health problems. An important development in the field is how to integrate methodological approaches to address questions. This raises a number of challenges, such as how to integrate textual and numerical data and how to reconcile different epistemologies. A distinction can be made between mixed- method design (eg, quantitative and qualitative data are gathered and findings combined within a single or series of studies) and mixed- model study, a pragmatist approach, whereby aspects of qualitative and quantitative research are combined at different stages during a research process. 19 Qualitative research is still often viewed as only a support function or as secondary to quantitative research; however, this situation is likely to evolve as more researchers gain a broader skill set.

Though it is undeniable that there has been a marked increase in the volume and quality of qualitative research published within the past two decades, mental health research has been surprisingly slow to develop, compared to other disciplines e.g. general practice and nursing, with relatively fewer qualitative research findings reaching mainstream psychiatric journals. 2 This does not appear to reflect overall editorial policy; however, it may be partly due to the lack of confidence on the part of editors and reviewers while identifying rigorous qualitative research data for further publication. 20 However, the skilled researcher should no longer find him or herself forced into a position of defending a single-methodology camp (quantitative vs qualitative), but should be equipped with the necessary methodological and analytical skills to study and interpret data and to appraise and interpret others' findings from a full range of methodological techniques.

• Crawford MJ ,
• Cordingley L
• Dowrick C ,
• Edwards S ,
• ↵ MRC Developing and Evaluating Complex Interventions 2008
• Nelson ML ,
• Quintana SM
• Schulze B ,
• Angermeyer MC
• Mavaddat N ,
• Lester HE ,
• Donovan J ,
• Morriss R ,
• Barkham M ,
• Stiles WB ,
• Connell J ,
• Chew-Graham C ,
• England E ,
• Kinderman P ,
• Tashakkoria A ,
• Ritchie J ,
• Ssebunnya J ,
• Chilvers R ,
• Glasman D ,
• Finlay WM ,
• Strauss A ,
• Hodges BD ,
• Dobransky K
• Dixon-Woods M ,
• Fitzpatrick R ,
• Espíndola CR ,

Pathways to qualitative research education in psychology

• Teaching Psychology as a Subject
• Testing, Assessment, and Measurement

Qualitative inquiry has been a part of psychology since its inception as an academic discipline (Wertz, 2014). Qualitative inquiry began to solidify as a form of scientific investigation between the 1960s and 1980s, and subsequently began diversifying, spreading, and integrating in the field in the 1990s and early 2000s (Wertz, 2014). In recent years, the ascension of qualitative research in psychology has continued, has received growing acceptance, has increased in use, and has garnered more institutional support. This rise yields both opportunities and challenges. Although emerging qualitative researchers will enter a field with more resources, guidance, and avenues for publication, they will face limited opportunities for the kind of training needed to prepare them for the unique and arduous demands of qualitative research and teaching. Thus, many of us who are committed to meeting the educational challenges posed by this moment have begun envisioning ways to prepare future qualitative researchers for increasingly substantive and creative contributions to their areas of inquiry, as well as to the field of qualitative inquiry. In this paper, after framing the opportunities and challenges posed by the ascension of qualitative research in psychology, we present several guiding principles for programs of study, and a new program for doctoral training built on those principles.

The rise of qualitative inquiry in psychology

The history of methods and methodology within the field of psychology is marked by dynamism and contestation (Brown, Pryiomka, & Clegg, 2020; Pryiomka & Clegg, 2020). For most of the 20th century, much of the research that we might describe as qualitative was conducted with little attention to and/or articulation of method (Wertz, 2014). For some of these methodological pioneers, their efforts were met with criticism and ostracism (Head, Quigua, & Clegg, 2019). While debate and contestation persist, qualitative research has emerged, become solidified, and gained acceptance within psychology over the last several decades (Wertz, 2014).

In recent years, the increasing institutionalization of qualitative research in psychology is indicative of its continued ascent within the field. For example, The Society of Qualitative Inquiry in Psychology (SQIP) became a section of Division 5 of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 2011. More recently, the Association of European Qualitative Researchers in Psychology (EQuiP) was formed between 2018 and 2019. The rise of these organizations follows in the wake of Qualitative Methods in Psychology (QMiP), which was formed in 2005, and as of 2019, stands as the largest section of the British Psychological Society (Riley, et al., 2019). Each of these organizations have established annual research conferences, and in so doing, add to an impressive list of scholarly gatherings focused on qualitative research (e.g., the International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry, The Qualitative Report conference). Moreover, building upon an expansive array of resources, various major publications such as the APA journal Qualitative Psychology , the five-volume collection Qualitative Research in Psychology (Gough, 2014), and the 34-chapter Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research in Psychology (2nd edition; Willig & Stainton Rogers, 2017) have been produced in the last decade. Such institutional solidification is reflective of the growing commitment to qualitative inquiry.

Beyond the emergent institutional infrastructure are other signs of this ascension. In examining the shifting regulatory landscape, we can identify multiple indicators of the growing acceptance of qualitative research. The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), for example, has called for increased financial support and training opportunities for qualitative research (Lamont & White, 2010). Within psychology, the APA's Commission on Accreditation has endorsed instruction in qualitative methods as a requirement for programmatic accreditation (APA, 2015). Such calls have not gone unheeded. The APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major: Version 2.0 (APA, 2016) includes learning outcomes involving qualitative research. Similarly, the BPS has included the teaching of qualitative methods in their subject benchmarks for accredited undergraduate programs (Riley et al., 2019). The macro-level accommodation for qualitative inquiry is perhaps most evident in the 2020 revision of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which includes sections on the presentation of qualitative research. Clearly, the formal inclusion of qualitative research within the field of psychology is taking place.

Qualitative inquiry's growing acceptance and inclusion are seemingly in accord with its increasing popularity among psychologists. In the words of Madill and Gough (2008), there has been a “surge in popularity of qualitative methods in psychology” (p. 254). Indeed, numerous scholars have noted the increasing popularity of qualitative research in psychology (e.g., Hansen, et al., 2005; Ponterrotto, 2010). Both the use of qualitative approaches and the publication of qualitative studies have been steadily rising in recent years (Hays et al., 2016; Levitt et al., 2018). One notable example of the emerging field's popularity is the fact that a recent article on qualitative reporting standards (Levitt et al., 2018) was the most downloaded article of all APA-published journals in 2018 and the most cited article in American Psychologist in 2019. Such examples signal the impressive rise of a field that, until relative recently, existed only at the margins of academic psychology (Wertz, 2014).

Not surprisingly, this ascension is reflected in changing curricular offerings. Qualitative coursework is becoming more common (Ponterotto, 2005; Rennie, 2004), and there has been marginal growth in the number of programs requiring qualitative courses (Rubin et al., 2017). Such curricular expansion seems to be in accord with student demand. Anecdotally, many of us who teach qualitative research courses find that students are hungry for such coursework and for research opportunities where they can apply knowledge developed in those courses. More concretely, student membership in SQIP, which has increased 15% over the past five years and currently stands at 25% of the society's total membership (A. Bland, personal communication, December 27, 2020), suggests that students are indeed interested in qualitative inquiry. Although qualitative research seems to be ascending in a variety of ways, graduate-level training opportunities for emerging psychologists are relatively few (Ponterotto, 2005: Harper, 2012; Povee & Roberts, 2014). This problem is being addressed by a diverse range of qualitative researchers, scholars, and teachers who are currently working to establish formal pathways for educating emerging qualitative researchers (e.g., concentrations, endorsements, certificate programs). Though exciting to those of us who see the purpose of and need for such pathways, this moment does pose challenges—from the structural to the conceptual—that warrant serious attention.

Identifying obstacles to qualitative research education

According to a recent study of graduate-level qualitative methods education (Rubin et al., 2017), the rise of qualitative inquiry is coupled with lingering uncertainty, an unclear trajectory, and a range of entrenched dilemmas. On the one hand, opportunities for qualitative education are rising, and students afforded those opportunities tend to use qualitative approaches in their dissertations; on the other hand, expanding qualitative education is impeded by a variety of factors. Those factors include a lack of university level support for qualitative research, faculty's undervaluing of qualitative approaches, a lack of trained faculty to teach qualitative courses, and the fact that those few faculty have expertise in a very few qualitative methodologies.

These challenges speak to the existing structural barriers to creating pathways for more formalized qualitative research education. Indeed, the current opportunities for graduate-level qualitative education are limited (Ponterrotto, 2005), not effectively integrated into curricula (Clarke & Braun, 2013), or adapted for curricula of subdisciplines (Rubin et al., 2017). Because overcoming such institutional challenges will play a significant role in students' inclinations to study, use, and, eventually teach, qualitative research methods (Rubin et al., 2017), those committed to establishing more formalized pathways for qualitative education will need to engage in numerous arduous tasks such as advocating for and initiating curricular changes, developing programs that fit within existing disciplinary structures, and cultivating buy-in amongst a plurality of constituents. Certainly, these are not easy tasks.

The structural impediments and the effort required to bring about institutional change pose challenges that occur in parallel to the conceptual hurdles that we must also address. While a concerted effort to make space for qualitative educational pathways is needed, improving qualitative research practice and pedagogy requires further elaborating the diversity of approaches and considering the best ways to teach qualitative methodologies as more than procedures—that is, as ways of knowing and doing that, for most students, are not familiar as science. Indeed, scholars highlight diverse goals, methods, and procedures (Gergen, 2014; Levitt et al., 2017). Some scholars go even further to highlight the array of often disharmonious epistemological, ontological, and methodological perspectives (Guba & Lincoln, 2011). Some have attempted to navigate and articulate the precarious boundary between the shared and diverse meanings and methods of qualitative inquiry (e.g. Guba & Lincoln, 2011; Levitt et al., 2017). In tension with such calls, however, is the ongoing need to establish qualitative inquiry as a somehow unitary approach. Pursuing complexity while aware of such obstacles, can, we think, serve as the foundation for increasingly fruitful education in qualitative inquiry.

Envisioning a more formalized pathway to qualitative training, we join the calls for pluralistic approaches to methodological education (Gibson & Sullivan, 2018; Gough & Lyons, 2016; Haverkamp, Morrow, & Ponterotto, 2005), for open dialogue about the aims of psychological inquiry, and for advocating for methodological pluralism in achieving these goals within U.S. psychology (Rubin et al., 2017). Rather than reducing qualitative research to one position, we imagine an educational pathway in which students learn to negotiate and expand taxonomies, transcend established hierarchies, draw on innovative approaches, and cultivate creative methodological solutions.

Such a challenging project will likely be amplified once subsumed into discussions about institutional matters such as credit allotment, coursework allocation, capstone project requirements, and faculty hiring. Addressing these challenges is far beyond the scope of this paper and will likely need to occur by a variety of actors, across institutions, over a prolonged period. As a step in this direction, we will highlight some principles that can guide us as we work toward creating curricula and discuss how those principles are manifesting in a recently established qualitative research concentration at the Graduate Center of The City University of New York.

(Some) guiding principles for qualitative research education

With qualitative research taking a foothold in mainstream psychology and in social science more broadly, the current moment requires creating guiding principles that can inform the development of pathways to qualitative education, can adapt to the pluralistic and dynamic nature of the field, and can fit into distinct pedagogical programs. Thus, such principles need to hold the general (the broad expectations for formal and recognizable education in qualitative inquiry) and the specific (particular foci of developing pathway programs) in delicate tension. Attending to this tension signifies an acknowledgement of the complexity and diversity of qualitative research methodologies. Moreover, this endeavor entails not only attention to the guiding epistemologies and ontologies that weave throughout all phases of research but also to the wide array of aims, positions, ethical commitments, designs, questions, data collection strategies, and analytic methods creating diversity within the field. Toward this goal, we present the following principles for qualitative research as a possible foundation for future pathway programs. These principles are deliberately few, as we seek insights to nurture the complexity of qualitative research. This involves managing the tension between identifying principles for organizing pedagogical programs while avoiding reductions wrought, for example, by prescribing the evaluation criteria for one approach to multiple (often incongruous) approaches.

Emphasizing the diversity of qualitative methodologies

With qualitative inquiry on the rise and the development of pathway programs in the works, we recognize the need to provide educational opportunities that help students develop a familiarity with a diverse range of qualitative approaches and an appreciation for the affordances and consequences that stem from their methodological choices. Students are often drawn to qualitative studies for scientific and ethical reasons, such as to explore underexamined phenomena, to inductively and/or abductively examine meaning construction, to privilege previously under-represented perspectives around an issue. In establishing qualitative pathways, it is important to develop curricula that support their varied interests but also highlight the complexity of the undertaking, such as acknowledging the conceptual in the methodological and the methodological in the conceptual.

We recognize that qualitative inquiries call up diverse ethics, epistemologies, research designs, questions, analyses, and findings. We aim to deepen qualitative research programs with curricula that reveal how apparently disharmonious or even competing qualitative approaches might be studied and applied to improve students' understanding of the field and to help them read and design qualitative research as a process of knowledge-building with relevant values, concepts, protocols, and attendant strategies. In so doing, we recognize the challenge of advancing a formal educational pathway that avoids the reduction of qualitative inquiry to a unitary approach, to a mere antonym of quantitative research, and/or to a codification of method(s).

In this process of studying different qualitative methodologies with different faculty who use the approaches in their own work and with their advisees, students will interact with case examples, practice applying different methods to their own projects, which will help them avoid the need to make methodological choices based on preference from among a list of methods or from among a few that have been highlighted locally. With courses that focus on diverse qualitative strategies, students will, ideally, develop the knowledge and experience for making nuanced decisions in terms of foundational issues such as researcher priorities and commitments (e.g., ethical, political), the goals of their research (e.g., to inform policy, to broaden or challenge extant theory), their ability to address those goals via distinct forms of knowledge-building (e.g., to describe, to illustrate, to generate), and the need to conduct research activities (e.g., design, analysis) in a way that is consistent with these conceptual foundations. To facilitate such complex negotiation, a dialogical and contrapuntal approach to promoting epistemological diversity is needed (Methebane & Sekudi, 2018), an approach that does not smooth over methodological disharmonies or reify dominant perspectives but rather engenders an open, critical, and creative educational framework for generating multiple routes to knowledge generation (Daiute, 2011; 2014). Such an approach allows students to negotiate existing perspectives and approaches as they draw from and cultivate a coherent system of epistemic values (see Osbeck, 2019), which better prepares them to situate their research in extant practices, establish and state a personal-professional stance, coherently enact this stance when developing and conducting research, and competently present their work to diverse audiences.

This kind of knowledges comes inductively and deductively by student participation in a range of diverse courses so that they may immerse in and follow through with a specific methodology, which allows for comparison across approaches that may seem/sound similar. Students who take multiple courses with a variety of faculty can follow through consistently on the rationale, epistemology, and details of a specific qualitative method because they've compared and learned how it works in a semester long class, read many examples, and done the same for another method. Ultimately, what students ideally gain from a pluralistic approach would be informed self-determination over their research. Such self-determination is wrought of confronting tensions between a comparative overview and immersion in a range of specific qualitative methodologies to develop knowledge for selecting among them for different research purposes and resources.

Acknowledging the role of researcher 

In developing curricula that supports students' negotiation of a diverse array of qualitative approaches, we not only aim to help them to navigate the complexity inherent in research and to prepare them to understand their position within the field but also to help them recognize and articulate their role in the research process. Such recognition entails that they not only see themselves as an engineer but also as an active participant who is inherently embedded in the research. Reflexivity has become an essential dimension of qualitative research—one that is now expected for publishing qualitative reports (Levitt et al., 2017). Reflexivity is a murky and multi-faceted construct (Finlay, 2002), and by facilitating students' negotiation of their role in the research process, we aim to encourage their responsibility and expertise. In so doing, we are helping them cultivate a more defensible philosophical/methodological position (see Finlay, 2002) but also to “own,” articulate and justify the wide array of choices that must be made throughout the research process.

Maintaining consistency across the project

Facilitating students' understanding of their role in research engenders epistemological consistency so that they are prepared to identify potential gaps in the research, such as between theory and practice, between ethical commitment and method, between analysis and research claims. Such critical reflection allows researchers to account for, minimize, and/or rectify inconsistency as they work to enact a coherent set of epistemic values within a research report. Facilitating students' development of coherent epistemological/methodological approach can help them develop a set of cohesive norms and practices that bind research projects, and accordingly, provide for consistency, comparability, and methodological legitimacy (Osbeck, 2019).

In facilitating students' negotiation of a diverse array of approaches, helping them establish a reflexive stance, and helping them cultivate cohesive research projects, we endeavor to help them be competent researchers and to produce compelling and impactful research. We do so out of a sense of ethical and pedagogical obligation to our students and because we recognize an emergent need for more thoughtful and systematic qualitative educational pathways. All too often, we witness our students undermine promising research projects by committing – seemingly without much forethought or justification—to an investigatory approach (usually some unarticulated plan for identifying themes) that is incongruent with their stated theoretical perspective, their espoused commitment to participants, and/or their goals for the research. This common occurrence is usually a harbinger of an unsuccessful research project, and more broadly, an indication that students need an educational pathway capable of preparing them for the many complexities, challenges, and choices inherent in qualitative research. The principles we have presented signify, we think, a step in that direction.

A foundational case: a critical qualitative research concentration

As an illustration of these principles in practice, we present an in-process Concentration on Qualitative Research Methods that is being developed by the PhD Programs in Psychology and Social Welfare at the Graduate Center, City University of New York. Guided by a Coordinating Committee consisting of approximately five faculty members and four students, “(t) he purpose of this concentration is to provide students with instruction and practice across a range of rigorous qualitative research methods that they can use in their independent research projects and/or broaden their expertise on research methods for subsequent research.” (Qualitative Research Methods Concentration Proposal, 2020, March). To meet these goals, the concentration is structured around the following elements: an overview three-credit proseminar course titled “Conceptual and Methodological Foundations of Qualitative Research,” at least three additional three-credit electives focused on specific qualitative research methodologies, and a final research presentation delivered to faculty, students, and members of relevant public-facing communities. By the time that students present at the yearly qualitative research festival, they will be able to distinguish qualitative research approaches, not just in terms of theoretical claims, but also in terms of implicit epistemological foundations, methodological entailments, and possible contributions as relevant to different projects. Students who successfully complete these requirements will have the certification listed on their transcripts.

The structure of this concentration enacts the previously discussed guiding principles for qualitative pathway programs in a way that supports the unique foci of the hosting graduate programs. The critical/social justice orientation of the CUNY programs supporting this concentration emphasize highlighting under-represented voices (such as minorities in a practice or culture), under-exposed voices (such as those in power), and alterative and/or decolonial ways of identifying meaning. Thus, interrogating and explicating the epistemology, goals, and questions of research/research practices are of primary importance in the curriculum. While engaging in coursework and project development, students practice critically examining epistemologies and methodological consequences of diverse research practices, which provides them with criteria for designing qualitative inquiry as integrated theory and method. In so doing, students grapple with questions that are foundational to the programs' orientation: Why do research? What is the knowledge I am seeking? How will I do that consistently and ethically with others who care? and, What will my contribution be?

To uphold structural agreements that ensure accessibility of courses to the students, uptake for the faculty offerings, and diversity for student cohorts across their course-taking years, we plan the electives three years ahead, with non-overlapping courses in any single semester, and in different time slots. This requires extensive faculty collaboration and checking in, rather than any top-down or digital monitoring. For example, in the first three years of the concentration, students select from the following courses, which faculty had previously committed to teach: Critical Methods ; Listening Guide/Advanced Listening Guide ; Critical Discourse Theory and Analysis ; Using Archives in Social Justice Research, Narrative Inquiry ; Doing Visual Methods ; Study of Lives ; Feminist Ethnography ; and Critical Virtual Remote Ethnography .

In an era of budgetary restraints and shrinking seats for graduate students, this concentration needed to be developed in a way that maximized existing resources and minimized competition with existing programs. Within CUNY, many faculty have been teaching an array of qualitative research courses, which lessened some institutional impediments, such as needing to seek additional funding.

In addition to the factors that are particular to this institution/concentration, there are more ubiquitous considerations that must be addressed by others pursuing qualitative pathway programs, such as articulating the value of such a program to a wide range of faculty who may be unfamiliar with and/or opposed to qualitative inquiry. In this regard, we hope that this paper can be useful for justifying the need for such pathway programs that adhere to guiding principles and allow for programmatic specificity.

For those of us who are attuned to the field of qualitative inquiry, it seems evident that we are at an important moment. While the field has ascended in a variety of ways, this rise poses both challenges and opportunities. While recognizing the gravity of this moment, we offer this paper as an attempt to spark discussion, facilitate partnerships, and hopefully move towards a future in which students can pursue a specialized education in qualitative research that holds the general and the specific in a respectful tension. Our prediction is that, like the qualitative concentration at the CUNY Graduate Center, other qualitative education pathway programs—with their own unique foci—will emerge and that the collective success of these programs will largely depend on the extent that we navigate the tension between the general and the specific with diligence, care, a sense of mutual collaboration.

References 

American Psychological Association (APA) 2015, Commission on accreditation: Implementing regulations, viewed 25 June 2017, https://www.apa.org/ed/accreditation/about/policies/implementing-guidelines.pdf

American Psychological Association. (2016). Guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major: Version 2.0. American Psychologist, 71(2), 102-111.

Brown, D. V., Pryiomka, K., & Clegg, J. (2020). Self-observation in psychology. Oxford Research Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.479     

Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2013). Teaching thematic analysis: Overcoming challenges and developing strategies for effective learning.  The psychologist ,  26 (2), 120-133.

Daiute, C. (2011). “Trouble” in, around, and between narratives.  Narrative Inquiry, 21: 2, 329 https://doi.org/10.1075/ni.21.2.11dai

Daiute, C. (2014). Narrative inquiry: A dynamic approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Finlay, L. (2002). Negotiating the swamp: the opportunity and challenge of reflexivity in research practice.  Qualitative Research ,  2 (2), 209-230.

Gergen, K. J. (2014). Pursuing excellence in qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Psychology, 1, 49-60.

Gergen, K. J., Josselson, R., & Freeman, M. (2015). The promises of qualitative inquiry. American Psychologist, 70 (1), 1–9.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038597

Gibson, S., & Sullivan, C. (2018). A changing culture? Qualitative methods teaching in UK psychology. Qualitative Psychology , 5 (2), 197.

Gough, B. (Ed.). (2014). Qualitative Research in Psychology: Collection: 5 Volumes Set . Sage.

Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences, revisited.  The Sage handbook of qualitative research ,  4 , 97-128. DOI:10.1080/17447143.2019.1617294         

Hanson, W. E., Creswell, J. W., Clark, V. L. P., Petska, K. S., & Creswell, J. D. (2005). Mixed methods research designs in counseling psychology.  Journal of counseling psychology ,  52 (2), 224.

Harper, D. J. (2012). Surveying qualitative research teaching on British clinical psychology training programmes 1992–2006: A changing relationship?.  Qualitative research in psychology ,  9 (1), 5-12.

Hays, D. G., Wood, C., Dahl, H., & Kirk‐Jenkins, A. (2016). Methodological rigor in Journal of Counseling & Development qualitative research articles: A 15‐year review.  Journal of Counseling & Development ,  94 (2), 172-183.

Head, J. C., Quigua, F., & Clegg, J. W. (2019). The radical potentials of human experience: Maslow, Leary, and the prehistory of qualitative inquiry.  Qualitative Psychology ,  6 (1), 116-132.

Head, J. C. (2020). Multicontextuality in narrative inquiry.  Qualitative Psychology ,  7 (2), 206.

Lamont, M., & White, P. (2010). Report from workshop on interdisciplinary standards for systematic qualitative research, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC.

Levitt, H. M., Motulsky, S. L., Wertz, F. J., Morrow, S. L., & Ponterotto, J. G. (2017). Recommendations for designing and reviewing qualitative research in psychology: Promoting methodological integrity. Qualitative Psychology , 4 (1), 2–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000082

Levitt, H. M., Bamberg, M., Creswell, J. W., Frost, D. M., Josselson, R., & Suárez-Orozco, C. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist , 73 (1), 26–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000151

Mathebane, M.S. & Sekudo, J. (2018). A contrapuntal epistemology for social work: An Afrocentric perspective. International Social Work, 61(6) 1154–1168. DOI: 10.1177/0020872817702704

Madill, A. & Gough, D. (2008). Qualitative research and its place in psychological science. Psychological Methods, 13 ( 3), 254–271. DOI: 10.1037/a0013220

Osbeck, L. M. (2018). Values in psychological science: Re-imagining epistemic priorities at a new frontier. Cambridge University Press.

Ponterotto, J. G. (2005). Integrating qualitative research requirements into professional psychology training programs in North America: Rationale and curriculum model. Qualitative Research in Psychology , 2 (2), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088705qp035oa

Ponterotto, J. G. (2010). Qualitative research in multicultural psychology: Philosophical underpinnings, popular approaches, and ethical considerations.  Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology ,  16 (4), 581.

Povee, K., & Roberts, L. D. (2014). Qualitative research in psychology: Attitudes of psychology students and academic staff.  Australian Journal of Psychology ,  66 (1), 28-37.

Pryiomka, K., & Clegg, J.W. (2020). A Historical Overview of Psychological Inquiry as a Contested Method. Oxford Research Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press. https://oxfordre.com/psychology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.001.0001/acrefore-9780190236557-e-477

Qualitative Research Methods Concentration Proposal (2020, March). Unpublished internal document, Ph.D. Program in Psychology, City University of New York.

Rennie, D. L. (2004). Anglo-North American qualitative counseling and psychotherapy research. Psychotherapy Research, 14, 37–55.

Riley, S., Brooks, J., Goodman, S., Cahill, S., Branney, P., Treharne, G. J., & Sullivan, C. (2019). Celebrations amongst challenges: Considering the past, present and future of the qualitative methods in psychology section of the British Psychology Society. Qualitative Research in Psychology , 16 (3), 464-482.

Rubin, J. D., Bell, S., & McClelland, S. I. (2018). Graduate education in qualitative methods in US psychology: Current trends and recommendations for the future.  Qualitative Research in Psychology ,  15 (1), 29-50.

Wertz, F. (2014). Qualitative inquiry in the history of psychology. Qualitative Psychology , 1(1), 4-16. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000007

Willig, C., & Rogers, W. S. (Eds.). (2017). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research in psychology . Sage.

Warning: The NCBI web site requires JavaScript to function. more...

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Browse Titles

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

StatPearls [Internet].

Qualitative study.

Steven Tenny ; Janelle M. Brannan ; Grace D. Brannan .

Affiliations

Last Update: September 18, 2022 .

• Introduction

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. [1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a standalone study, purely relying on qualitative data, or part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. This review introduces the readers to some basic concepts, definitions, terminology, and applications of qualitative research.

Qualitative research, at its core, asks open-ended questions whose answers are not easily put into numbers, such as "how" and "why." [2] Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions, qualitative research design is often not linear like quantitative design. [2] One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human behavior that can be difficult to quantify. [3] Phenomena such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors can be complex to capture accurately and quantitatively. In contrast, a qualitative approach allows participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and experiencing at a particular time or during an event of interest. Quantifying qualitative data certainly is possible, but at its core, qualitative data is looking for themes and patterns that can be difficult to quantify, and it is essential to ensure that the context and narrative of qualitative work are not lost by trying to quantify something that is not meant to be quantified.

However, while qualitative research is sometimes placed in opposition to quantitative research, where they are necessarily opposites and therefore "compete" against each other and the philosophical paradigms associated with each other, qualitative and quantitative work are neither necessarily opposites, nor are they incompatible. [4] While qualitative and quantitative approaches are different, they are not necessarily opposites and certainly not mutually exclusive. For instance, qualitative research can help expand and deepen understanding of data or results obtained from quantitative analysis. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? This dual-focus scenario shows one way in which qualitative and quantitative research could be integrated.

Qualitative Research Approaches

Ethnography

Ethnography as a research design originates in social and cultural anthropology and involves the researcher being directly immersed in the participant’s environment. [2] Through this immersion, the ethnographer can use a variety of data collection techniques to produce a comprehensive account of the social phenomena that occurred during the research period. [2] That is to say, the researcher’s aim with ethnography is to immerse themselves into the research population and come out of it with accounts of actions, behaviors, events, etc, through the eyes of someone involved in the population. Direct involvement of the researcher with the target population is one benefit of ethnographic research because it can then be possible to find data that is otherwise very difficult to extract and record.

Grounded theory

Grounded Theory is the "generation of a theoretical model through the experience of observing a study population and developing a comparative analysis of their speech and behavior." [5] Unlike quantitative research, which is deductive and tests or verifies an existing theory, grounded theory research is inductive and, therefore, lends itself to research aimed at social interactions or experiences. [3] [2] In essence, Grounded Theory’s goal is to explain how and why an event occurs or how and why people might behave a certain way. Through observing the population, a researcher using the Grounded Theory approach can then develop a theory to explain the phenomena of interest.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is the "study of the meaning of phenomena or the study of the particular.” [5] At first glance, it might seem that Grounded Theory and Phenomenology are pretty similar, but the differences can be seen upon careful examination. At its core, phenomenology looks to investigate experiences from the individual's perspective. [2] Phenomenology is essentially looking into the "lived experiences" of the participants and aims to examine how and why participants behaved a certain way from their perspective. Herein lies one of the main differences between Grounded Theory and Phenomenology. Grounded Theory aims to develop a theory for social phenomena through an examination of various data sources. In contrast, Phenomenology focuses on describing and explaining an event or phenomenon from the perspective of those who have experienced it.

Narrative research

One of qualitative research’s strengths lies in its ability to tell a story, often from the perspective of those directly involved in it. Reporting on qualitative research involves including details and descriptions of the setting involved and quotes from participants. This detail is called a "thick" or "rich" description and is a strength of qualitative research. Narrative research is rife with the possibilities of "thick" description as this approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one or two individuals, hoping to create a cohesive story or narrative. [2] While it might seem like a waste of time to focus on such a specific, individual level, understanding one or two people’s narratives for an event or phenomenon can help to inform researchers about the influences that helped shape that narrative. The tension or conflict of differing narratives can be "opportunities for innovation." [2]

Research Paradigm

Research paradigms are the assumptions, norms, and standards underpinning different research approaches. Essentially, research paradigms are the "worldviews" that inform research. [4] It is valuable for qualitative and quantitative researchers to understand what paradigm they are working within because understanding the theoretical basis of research paradigms allows researchers to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the approach being used and adjust accordingly. Different paradigms have different ontologies and epistemologies. Ontology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of reality,” whereas epistemology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of knowledge" that inform researchers' work. [2] It is essential to understand the ontological and epistemological foundations of the research paradigm researchers are working within to allow for a complete understanding of the approach being used and the assumptions that underpin the approach as a whole. Further, researchers must understand their own ontological and epistemological assumptions about the world in general because their assumptions about the world will necessarily impact how they interact with research. A discussion of the research paradigm is not complete without describing positivist, postpositivist, and constructivist philosophies.

Positivist versus postpositivist

To further understand qualitative research, we must discuss positivist and postpositivist frameworks. Positivism is a philosophy that the scientific method can and should be applied to social and natural sciences. [4] Essentially, positivist thinking insists that the social sciences should use natural science methods in their research. It stems from positivist ontology, that there is an objective reality that exists that is wholly independent of our perception of the world as individuals. Quantitative research is rooted in positivist philosophy, which can be seen in the value it places on concepts such as causality, generalizability, and replicability.

Conversely, postpositivists argue that social reality can never be one hundred percent explained, but could be approximated. [4] Indeed, qualitative researchers have been insisting that there are “fundamental limits to the extent to which the methods and procedures of the natural sciences could be applied to the social world,” and therefore, postpositivist philosophy is often associated with qualitative research. [4] An example of positivist versus postpositivist values in research might be that positivist philosophies value hypothesis-testing, whereas postpositivist philosophies value the ability to formulate a substantive theory.

Constructivist

Constructivism is a subcategory of postpositivism. Most researchers invested in postpositivist research are also constructivist, meaning they think there is no objective external reality that exists but instead that reality is constructed. Constructivism is a theoretical lens that emphasizes the dynamic nature of our world. "Constructivism contends that individuals' views are directly influenced by their experiences, and it is these individual experiences and views that shape their perspective of reality.” [6]  constructivist thought focuses on how "reality" is not a fixed certainty and how experiences, interactions, and backgrounds give people a unique view of the world. Constructivism contends, unlike positivist views, that there is not necessarily an "objective"reality we all experience. This is the ‘relativist’ ontological view that reality and our world are dynamic and socially constructed. Therefore, qualitative scientific knowledge can be inductive as well as deductive.” [4]

So why is it important to understand the differences in assumptions that different philosophies and approaches to research have? Fundamentally, the assumptions underpinning the research tools a researcher selects provide an overall base for the assumptions the rest of the research will have. It can even change the role of the researchers. [2] For example, is the researcher an "objective" observer, such as in positivist quantitative work? Or is the researcher an active participant in the research, as in postpositivist qualitative work? Understanding the philosophical base of the study undertaken allows researchers to fully understand the implications of their work and their role within the research and reflect on their positionality and bias as it pertains to the research they are conducting.

Data Sampling 

The better the sample represents the intended study population, the more likely the researcher is to encompass the varying factors. The following are examples of participant sampling and selection: [7]

• Purposive sampling- selection based on the researcher’s rationale for being the most informative.
• Criterion sampling selection based on pre-identified factors.
• Convenience sampling- selection based on availability.
• Snowball sampling- the selection is by referral from other participants or people who know potential participants.
• Extreme case sampling- targeted selection of rare cases.
• Typical case sampling selection based on regular or average participants. 

Data Collection and Analysis

Qualitative research uses several techniques, including interviews, focus groups, and observation. [1] [2] [3] Interviews may be unstructured, with open-ended questions on a topic, and the interviewer adapts to the responses. Structured interviews have a predetermined number of questions that every participant is asked. It is usually one-on-one and appropriate for sensitive topics or topics needing an in-depth exploration. Focus groups are often held with 8-12 target participants and are used when group dynamics and collective views on a topic are desired. Researchers can be participant-observers to share the experiences of the subject or non-participants or detached observers.

While quantitative research design prescribes a controlled environment for data collection, qualitative data collection may be in a central location or the participants' environment, depending on the study goals and design. Qualitative research could amount to a large amount of data. Data is transcribed, which may then be coded manually or using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software or CAQDAS such as ATLAS.ti or NVivo. [8] [9] [10]

After the coding process, qualitative research results could be in various formats. It could be a synthesis and interpretation presented with excerpts from the data. [11] Results could also be in the form of themes and theory or model development.

Dissemination

The healthcare team can use two reporting standards to standardize and facilitate the dissemination of qualitative research outcomes. The Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research or COREQ is a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. [12] The Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) is a checklist covering a more comprehensive range of qualitative research. [13]

Applications

Many times, a research question will start with qualitative research. The qualitative research will help generate the research hypothesis, which can be tested with quantitative methods. After the data is collected and analyzed with quantitative methods, a set of qualitative methods can be used to dive deeper into the data to better understand what the numbers truly mean and their implications. The qualitative techniques can then help clarify the quantitative data and also help refine the hypothesis for future research. Furthermore, with qualitative research, researchers can explore poorly studied subjects with quantitative methods. These include opinions, individual actions, and social science research.

An excellent qualitative study design starts with a goal or objective. This should be clearly defined or stated. The target population needs to be specified. A method for obtaining information from the study population must be carefully detailed to ensure no omissions of part of the target population. A proper collection method should be selected that will help obtain the desired information without overly limiting the collected data because, often, the information sought is not well categorized or obtained. Finally, the design should ensure adequate methods for analyzing the data. An example may help better clarify some of the various aspects of qualitative research.

A researcher wants to decrease the number of teenagers who smoke in their community. The researcher could begin by asking current teen smokers why they started smoking through structured or unstructured interviews (qualitative research). The researcher can also get together a group of current teenage smokers and conduct a focus group to help brainstorm factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke (qualitative research).

In this example, the researcher has used qualitative research methods (interviews and focus groups) to generate a list of ideas of why teens start to smoke and factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke. Next, the researcher compiles this data. The research found that, hypothetically, peer pressure, health issues, cost, being considered "cool," and rebellious behavior all might increase or decrease the likelihood of teens starting to smoke.

The researcher creates a survey asking teen participants to rank how important each of the above factors is in either starting smoking (for current smokers) or not smoking (for current nonsmokers). This survey provides specific numbers (ranked importance of each factor) and is thus a quantitative research tool.

The researcher can use the survey results to focus efforts on the one or two highest-ranked factors. Let us say the researcher found that health was the primary factor that keeps teens from starting to smoke, and peer pressure was the primary factor that contributed to teens starting smoking. The researcher can go back to qualitative research methods to dive deeper into these for more information. The researcher wants to focus on keeping teens from starting to smoke, so they focus on the peer pressure aspect.

The researcher can conduct interviews and focus groups (qualitative research) about what types and forms of peer pressure are commonly encountered, where the peer pressure comes from, and where smoking starts. The researcher hypothetically finds that peer pressure often occurs after school at the local teen hangouts, mostly in the local park. The researcher also hypothetically finds that peer pressure comes from older, current smokers who provide the cigarettes.

The researcher could further explore this observation made at the local teen hangouts (qualitative research) and take notes regarding who is smoking, who is not, and what observable factors are at play for peer pressure to smoke. The researcher finds a local park where many local teenagers hang out and sees that the smokers tend to hang out in a shady, overgrown area of the park. The researcher notes that smoking teenagers buy their cigarettes from a local convenience store adjacent to the park, where the clerk does not check identification before selling cigarettes. These observations fall under qualitative research.

If the researcher returns to the park and counts how many individuals smoke in each region, this numerical data would be quantitative research. Based on the researcher's efforts thus far, they conclude that local teen smoking and teenagers who start to smoke may decrease if there are fewer overgrown areas of the park and the local convenience store does not sell cigarettes to underage individuals.

The researcher could try to have the parks department reassess the shady areas to make them less conducive to smokers or identify how to limit the sales of cigarettes to underage individuals by the convenience store. The researcher would then cycle back to qualitative methods of asking at-risk populations their perceptions of the changes and what factors are still at play, and quantitative research that includes teen smoking rates in the community and the incidence of new teen smokers, among others. [14] [15]

Qualitative research functions as a standalone research design or combined with quantitative research to enhance our understanding of the world. Qualitative research uses techniques including structured and unstructured interviews, focus groups, and participant observation not only to help generate hypotheses that can be more rigorously tested with quantitative research but also to help researchers delve deeper into the quantitative research numbers, understand what they mean, and understand what the implications are. Qualitative research allows researchers to understand what is going on, especially when things are not easily categorized. [16]

• Issues of Concern

As discussed in the sections above, quantitative and qualitative work differ in many ways, including the evaluation criteria. There are four well-established criteria for evaluating quantitative data: internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity. Credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability are the correlating concepts in qualitative research. [4] [11] The corresponding quantitative and qualitative concepts can be seen below, with the quantitative concept on the left and the qualitative concept on the right:

• Internal validity: Credibility
• External validity: Transferability
• Reliability: Dependability
• Objectivity: Confirmability

In conducting qualitative research, ensuring these concepts are satisfied and well thought out can mitigate potential issues from arising. For example, just as a researcher will ensure that their quantitative study is internally valid, qualitative researchers should ensure that their work has credibility. 

Indicators such as triangulation and peer examination can help evaluate the credibility of qualitative work.

• Triangulation: Triangulation involves using multiple data collection methods to increase the likelihood of getting a reliable and accurate result. In our above magic example, the result would be more reliable if we interviewed the magician, backstage hand, and the person who "vanished." In qualitative research, triangulation can include telephone surveys, in-person surveys, focus groups, and interviews and surveying an adequate cross-section of the target demographic.
• Peer examination: A peer can review results to ensure the data is consistent with the findings.

A "thick" or "rich" description can be used to evaluate the transferability of qualitative research, whereas an indicator such as an audit trail might help evaluate the dependability and confirmability.

• Thick or rich description:  This is a detailed and thorough description of details, the setting, and quotes from participants in the research. [5] Thick descriptions will include a detailed explanation of how the study was conducted. Thick descriptions are detailed enough to allow readers to draw conclusions and interpret the data, which can help with transferability and replicability.
• Audit trail: An audit trail provides a documented set of steps of how the participants were selected and the data was collected. The original information records should also be kept (eg, surveys, notes, recordings).

One issue of concern that qualitative researchers should consider is observation bias. Here are a few examples:

• Hawthorne effect: The effect is the change in participant behavior when they know they are being observed. Suppose a researcher wanted to identify factors that contribute to employee theft and tell the employees they will watch them to see what factors affect employee theft. In that case, one would suspect employee behavior would change when they know they are being protected.
• Observer-expectancy effect: Some participants change their behavior or responses to satisfy the researcher's desired effect. This happens unconsciously for the participant, so it is essential to eliminate or limit the transmission of the researcher's views.
• Artificial scenario effect: Some qualitative research occurs in contrived scenarios with preset goals. In such situations, the information may not be accurate because of the artificial nature of the scenario. The preset goals may limit the qualitative information obtained.
• Clinical Significance

Qualitative or quantitative research helps healthcare providers understand patients and the impact and challenges of the care they deliver. Qualitative research provides an opportunity to generate and refine hypotheses and delve deeper into the data generated by quantitative research. Qualitative research is not an island apart from quantitative research but an integral part of research methods to understand the world around us. [17]

• Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Qualitative research is essential for all healthcare team members as all are affected by qualitative research. Qualitative research may help develop a theory or a model for health research that can be further explored by quantitative research. Much of the qualitative research data acquisition is completed by numerous team members, including social workers, scientists, nurses, etc. Within each area of the medical field, there is copious ongoing qualitative research, including physician-patient interactions, nursing-patient interactions, patient-environment interactions, healthcare team function, patient information delivery, etc. 

• Review Questions
• Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.
• Comment on this article.

Disclosure: Steven Tenny declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Janelle Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Grace Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Tenny S, Brannan JM, Brannan GD. Qualitative Study. [Updated 2022 Sep 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

In this Page

Bulk download.

• Bulk download StatPearls data from FTP

Related information

• PMC PubMed Central citations
• PubMed Links to PubMed

Similar articles in PubMed

• Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas. [Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022] Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas. Crider K, Williams J, Qi YP, Gutman J, Yeung L, Mai C, Finkelstain J, Mehta S, Pons-Duran C, Menéndez C, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Feb 1; 2(2022). Epub 2022 Feb 1.
• Macromolecular crowding: chemistry and physics meet biology (Ascona, Switzerland, 10-14 June 2012). [Phys Biol. 2013] Macromolecular crowding: chemistry and physics meet biology (Ascona, Switzerland, 10-14 June 2012). Foffi G, Pastore A, Piazza F, Temussi PA. Phys Biol. 2013 Aug; 10(4):040301. Epub 2013 Aug 2.
• The future of Cochrane Neonatal. [Early Hum Dev. 2020] The future of Cochrane Neonatal. Soll RF, Ovelman C, McGuire W. Early Hum Dev. 2020 Nov; 150:105191. Epub 2020 Sep 12.
• Review Invited review: Qualitative research in dairy science-A narrative review. [J Dairy Sci. 2023] Review Invited review: Qualitative research in dairy science-A narrative review. Ritter C, Koralesky KE, Saraceni J, Roche S, Vaarst M, Kelton D. J Dairy Sci. 2023 Sep; 106(9):5880-5895. Epub 2023 Jul 18.
• Review Participation in environmental enhancement and conservation activities for health and well-being in adults: a review of quantitative and qualitative evidence. [Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016] Review Participation in environmental enhancement and conservation activities for health and well-being in adults: a review of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Husk K, Lovell R, Cooper C, Stahl-Timmins W, Garside R. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 May 21; 2016(5):CD010351. Epub 2016 May 21.

Recent Activity

• Qualitative Study - StatPearls Qualitative Study - StatPearls

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

Connect with NLM

National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894

Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure

Help Accessibility Careers

Methodological Issues and Strategies in Clinical Research

Available formats, also available from.

• Table of contents
• Contributor bios
• Reviews and awards
• Book details

Now in its fifth edition, this classic text helps readers learn how to design, conduct, analyze, and report high-quality clinical studies.

Alan E. Kazdin brings together a wide array of authoritative articles with his own expert insights to illustrate fundamental issues research in an accessible manner, including generating ideas, selecting participants, randomization, selecting assessment measures, analyzing data, and evaluating the implications of and publishing the results.

New to this edition are articles emphasizing the importance of diversity in research, not only cultural diversity among study participants but also in methodology (including quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods); the role of big data; using technology such as artificial intelligence and apps; and strategies to improve transparency and accessibility, including open science practices, replication, and preregistration.

From generating hypotheses for study and selecting appropriate assessments to interpreting data and presenting findings, readers will come to better understand the whole research process as well as the importance of ethics and scientific integrity.

Part I. Introduction: Overview and Background

• Chapter 1. Methodology: What It Is and Why It Is So Important Alan E. Kazdin

Part II. Beginning the Research Process

• Chapter 2. Beginning the Process: Key Concepts and Questions to Guide Research Alan E. Kazdin
• Chapter 3. Getting Out of Our Conceptual Ruts: Strategies for Expanding Conceptual Frameworks Allan W. Wicker
• Chapter 4. In Defense of External Invalidity Douglas G. Mook
• Chapter 5. When Small Effects Are Impressive Deborah A. Prentice and Dale T. Miller

Part III. Participants in Research

• Chapter 6. A WEIRD View of Human Nature Skews Psychologists' Studies Dan Jones
• Chapter 7. Toward a Psychology of Homo Sapiens : Making Psychological Science More Representative of the Human Population Mostafa Salari Rad, Alison Jane Martingano, and Jeremy Ginges

Diversity of Participants

• Chapter 8. On Becoming Multicultural in a Monocultural Research World: A Conceptual Approach to Studying Ethnocultural Diversity Gordon C. Nagayama Hall, Tiffany Yip, and Michael A. Zárate
• Chapter 9. Designing Studies for Sex and Gender Analyses: How Research Can Derive Clinically Useful Knowledge for Women's Health Ruth Klap and Keith Humphreys

Part IV. Design Options With and Without Randomization

Research Designs Options

• Chapter 10. Experimental and Observational Designs: An Overview Alan E. Kazdin
• Chapter 11. Observational Studies and Their Utility for Practice Julia F. M. Gilmartin-Thomas, Danny Liew, and Ingrid Hopper

Randomization and Randomized Controlled Trials

• Chapter 12. Random Sampling, Randomization, and Equivalence of Contrasted Groups in Psychotherapy Outcome Research Louis M. Hsu
• Chapter 13. Randomized Controlled Trials: Characteristics, Options, and Challenges Alan E. Kazdin

Part V. Assessment

Core Concepts and Considerations in Developing and Selecting Measures

• Chapter 14. Constructing Validity: New Developments in Creating Objective Measuring Instruments Lee Anna Clark and David Watson
• Chapter 15. Selecting Measures for Research Investigations Alan E. Kazdin

Novel Measurement Options

• Chapter 16. Computer-Enhanced Practice: The Benefits of Computer-Assisted Assessment in Applied Clinical Practice Stephanie Ruth Young, Danika L. S. Maddocks, and Jacqueline M. Caemmerer
• Chapter 17. Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) in Studies of Substance Use Saul Shiffman
• Chapter 18. AI in Mental Health Simon D’Alfonso

Part VI. Data Analysis, Evaluation, and Presentation

Background and Underpinnings of Data Analyses

• Chapter 19. A Power Primer Jacob Cohen
• Chapter 20. Abandon Statistical Significance Blakeley B. McShane, David Gal, Andrew Gelman, Christian Robert, and Jennifer L. Tackett
• Chapter 21. Ethical Concerns in Statistical Analyses: Implications for Clinical Research and Practice Owen J. Gaasedelen

Data Exploration and Multiple Methods of Data Analyses

• Chapter 22. Exploratory Data Analysis as a Foundation of Inductive Research Andrew T. Jebb, Scott Parrigon, and Sang Eun Woo
• Chapter 23. When Should We Use One-Tailed Hypothesis Testing? Graeme D. Ruxton and Markus Neuhäuser
• Chapter 24. The Proof of the Pudding: An Illustration of the Relative Strengths of Null Hypothesis, Meta-Analysis, and Bayesian Analysis George S. Howard, Scott E. Maxwell, and Kevin J. Fleming

Data Presentation

• Chapter 25. Designing Better Graphs by Including Distributional Information and Integrating Words, Numbers, and Images David M. Lane and Anikó Sándor

Part VII. Special Topics: Evaluation in Clinical Practice and Research

Evaluating Clinical Effects of Treatment

• Chapter 26. Routine Outcome Monitoring (ROM) and Feedback: Research Review and Recommendations Michael Barkham, Kim De Jong, Jaime Delgadillo, and Wolfgang Lutz
• Chapter 27. Revisiting and Reenvisioning the Outcome Problem in Psychotherapy: An Argument to Include Individualized and Qualitative Measurement Clara E. Hill, Harold Chui, and Ellen Baumann

Extending Treatments

• Chapter 28. Beyond Efficacy and Effectiveness: A Multifaceted Approach to Treatment Evaluation Timothy D. Nelson and Ric G. Steele
• Chapter 29. Testing Psychosocial Interventions in the Contexts They Are Meant to be Delivered Rinad S. Beidas, Lisa Saldana, and Rachel C. Shelton

Part VIII. Multiple Methodologies and Levels of Data Analysis

Beyond Quantitative Methods

• Chapter 30. What Can Qualitative Psychology Contribute to Psychological Knowledge? Carla Willig
• Chapter 31. Mixed Methods Research in Psychology Timothy C. Guetterman and Analay Perez
• Chapter 32. Single-Case Experimental Research Designs Alan E. Kazdin

Big Data, Secondary Data Sets, and Collaborative Science

• Chapter 33. Big Data in Psychology: A Framework for Research Advancement Idris Adjerid and Ken Kelley
• Chapter 34. Getting Started: Working With Secondary Data Amy M. Pienta, JoAnne McFarland O'Rourke, and Melissa M. Franks
• Chapter 35. How to Build Up Big Team Science: A Practical Guide for Large-Scale Collaborations Heidi A. Baumgartner, Nicolás Alessandroni, Krista Byers-Heinlein, Michael C. Frank, J. Kiley Hamlin, Melanie Soderstrom, Jan G. Voelkel, Robb Willer, Francis Yuen, and Nicholas A. Coles

Part IX. Ethics and Scientific Integrity

Guidelines and Codes

• Chapter 36. Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct American Psychological Association
• Chapter 37. Research Ethics: How to Treat People Who Participate in Research Ezekiel Emanuel, Emily Abdoler, and Leanne Stunkel

Professional Responsibilities for the Conduct of Research

• Chapter 38. International Recommendations to Guide Multiple Facets of the Research and Publication Process Alan E. Kazdin
• Chapter 39. False-Positive Psychology: Undisclosed Flexibility in Data Collection and Analysis Allows Presenting Anything as Significant Joseph P. Simmons, Leif D. Nelson, and Uri Simonsohn
• Chapter 40. Best Practices for Allocating Appropriate Credit and Responsibility to Authors of Multi-Authored Articles Lucas D. Eggert

Part X. Open Science, Replication, and Research Practices

Open Science

• Chapter 41. A Manifesto for Reproducible Science Marcus R. Munafò, Brian A. Nosek, Dorothy V. M. Bishop, Katherine S. Button, Christopher D. Chambers, Nathalie Percie du Sert, Uri Simonsohn, Eric-Jan Wagenmakers, Jennifer J. Ware, and John P. A. Ioannidis
• Chapter 42. Replicate Others as You Would Like to Be Replicated Yourself Nicole Janz and Jeremy Freese

Practices to Improve Research

• Chapter 43. A Template for Preregistration of Quantitative Research in Psychology: Report of the Joint Psychological Societies Preregistration Task Force Michael Bosnjak, Christian J. Fiebach, David Mellor, Stefanie Mueller, Daryl B. O’Connor, Frederick L. Oswald, and Rosemarie I. Sokol
• Chapter 44. Responsible Practices for Data Sharing George Alter and Richard Gonzalez

Part XI. Publication and Communication of Research

Reporting Standards: What to Cover and Include in an Article

• Chapter 45. Journal Article Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research in Psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board Task Force Report Mark Appelbaum, Harris Cooper, Rex B. Kline, Evan Mayo-Wilson, Arthur M. Nezu, and Stephen M. Rao

Communicating Research Findings

• Chapter 46. Publication and Communication of Research Findings Alan E. Kazdin

Part XII. Perspectives on Methodology

• Chapter 47. Methodology: Perspectives and General Lessons to Guide Research Alan E. Kazdin

About the Editor

Alan E. Kazdin, PhD, is a research scientist and sterling professor of psychology and child psychiatry at Yale University where he also served as chairman of the psychology department, director of the Child Study Center, director of child psychiatric services, and chair of the publications committee.

He has published 50 books on methodology, parenting and child-rearing, psychosocial interventions, interpersonal violence, and novel treatment delivery models.

His awards include the Research Scientist and MERIT Awards from the National Institute of Mental Health and the Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in the Science of Psychology from the American Psychological Foundation.

This book is a must-read for all students and trainees in clinical and counseling psychology and the go-to resource for everyone interested in clinical science. It is an updated classic from the foremost leader in clinical psychological science. Kazdin assembled the best works in psychological methods to walk us through all stages of the research process emphasizing the importance of using science to understand and treat clinical disorders while at the same time addressing the challenges and pitfalls head-on. This updated masterpiece will be required reading in the training of the next generation of clinical scientists. —Jutta Joormann, PhD, Richard Ely Professor and Chair of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT

Once again, Alan E. Kazdin has interwoven his own research design and methodological contributions with those of leading scholars across a variety of relevant areas to describe and clarify research and methodological issues in scientific inquiry. The result—an expanded and updated contemporary fifth edition of a book that will continue to serve as the model for informing and addressing methodological issues. It simply sets the standard in this arena for both academic and clinical readers. —W. Edward Craighead, PhD, ABPP, J. Rex Fuqua Professor and Vice Chair, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA

You may also like

How to Mix Methods

The Complete Researcher

Ethical Choices in Research

Big Data in Psychological Research

Qualitative Research in Psychology, Second Edition