biography a secondary source

Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary vs. secondary sources, primary sources.

Primary sources are materials that are eyewitness accounts or as close to the original source as possible.

Qualitative data:

• What people say. They are usually Speeches , Interviews and Conversations, and they may be captured in Videos, Audio Recordings, or transcribed into text.
• What people write.  These include Autobiographies, Memoirs, Personal Journals and Diaries, Letters, Emails, Blogs, Twitter Feeds and other forms of Social Media.
• Images and Videos.
• Government Documents-- U.S . and rest of the world.
• Laws, Court Cases and Decisions, Treaties.
• Newspapers.

Quantitative data:

• Statistics and Data .
• Polls and Public Opinions .

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find both primary and secondary sources published in book form.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are interpretations and analyses based on primary sources.

For example, an autobiography is a primary source while a biography is a secondary source.

Typical secondary sources include:

• Scholarly Journal Articles.  Use these and books exclusively for writing Literature Reviews.
• Encyclopedias.
• Dictionaries.
• Documentaries.

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find primary and secondary sources published in book form.

When Secondary Sources Become Primary Sources

Often secondary and primary sources are relative concepts.  Typical secondary sources may be primary sources depending on the research topic.

• Intellectual history topics. For example, although scholarly journal articles are usually considered secondary sources, if one's topic is the history of human rights, then journal articles on human rights will be primary sources in this instance.  Similarly, research on the thinking of a scholar will include her published journal articles as primary sources.  
• Historical topics. Magazine articles are secondary sources, but for someone researching the view of judicial punishment in the 1920s, magazines from that time period are primary sources.  Indeed, any older publication, such as those prior to the 20th century, is very often automatically considered a primary source.  
• Newspapers may be either primary or secondary. Most articles in newspapers are secondary, but reporters may be considered as witnesses to an event.  Any topic on the media coverage of an event or phenomenon would treat newspapers as a primary source.  There are so many articles and types of articles in newspapers that newspapers can often be considered either primary or secondary.
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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on June 20, 2018 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on May 31, 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . Thus, secondary research describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews , surveys , experiments ) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

Documentaries

If you are researching the causes of World War II, a recent documentary about the war is a secondary source . But if you are researching the filmmaking techniques used in historical documentaries, the documentary is a primary source .

Reviews and essays

If your paper is about the novels of Toni Morrison, a magazine review of one of her novels is a secondary source . But if your paper is about the critical reception of Toni Morrison’s work, the review is a primary source .

Newspaper articles

If your aim is to analyze the government’s economic policy, a newspaper article about a new policy is a secondary source . But if your aim is to analyze media coverage of economic issues, the newspaper article is a primary source .

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in evaluating the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

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Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research. Tertiary sources are often used in the first, exploratory stage of research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesize a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review or meta analysis, you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

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Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

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Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 31). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/primary-and-secondary-sources/

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Definitions (from Pennington School)

Examples (from penington school), selected sources.

• Analyzing Primary Sources
• Determining Primary vs. Secondary Sources (from Fresno State Univ.)
• Primary Source Databases
• Web Resources
• E-Books This link opens in a new window

A primary source is an original material created during the time under study. Primary sources can be original documents, creative works, published materials of the times, institutional and government documents or relics and artifacts

Secondary sources put primary sources in context. They comment, summarize, interpret or analyze information found in primary sources. Secondary sources are usually written by individuals who did not experience firsthand the events about which they are writing.

• Primary, Secondary or Tertiary Sources Tertiary sources: good for an overview; can help narrow a topic Secondary sources: sources created after the time of the event and not contemporaneous with the lifetime of the person Primary sources: original objects or documents created near the time being studied.
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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on 4 September 2022 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on 15 May 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesises primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

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Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyses information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesise information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopaedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyse it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in analysing the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesise a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review , you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of sources are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analysing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyse language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analysing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

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Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 15). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 19 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/primary-vs-secondary-sources/

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Looking for a book, article, database or something else for your research, primary sources.

A  primary source  is an  original  document containing  firsthand  information about a topic.

Different fields of study may use different types of primary sources. Common examples of a primary source are:

• Autobiographies
• Eyewitness Accounts
• Interview Transcripts
• Legal Documents
• Original works of art
• Photographs of the topic
• Original Research
• Video Footage of the topic event
• Works of literature

Secondary Sources

A  secondary source  contains commentary on or discussion about a primary source. The most important feature of secondary sources is that they offer an  interpretation  of information gathered from primary sources.

Common examples of a secondary source are:

• Biographies
• Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies (used to locate a secondary source)
• Journal Articles
• Literary Criticism
• Monographs written about the topic
• Reviews of books, movies, musical recordings,. works of art, etc.

Primary vs. Secondary Information

Primary sources are first hand sources; secondary sources are second-hand sources. For example, suppose there had been a car accident. The description of the accident which a witness gives to the police is a primary source because it comes from someone who was actually there at the time. The next day's newspaper story is a secondary source because the reporter who wrote the story did not actually witness the event.  The reporter is presenting a way of understanding the accident or an interpretation.

*From North Park University, History Department

However , the distinctions between primary and secondary sources can be ambiguous. It is important to remember that you cannot determine whether a source is primary or secondary solely based on the document type. An individual document may be a primary source in one context and a secondary source in another. For example, the movie  Love, Marilyn  is a secondary source when the topic is Marilyn Monroe; it would be considered a primary source if the topic of research was the works of Liz Garbus (the film's director).

Additionally, time can be a defining element. For example, a recent newspaper article is not usually a primary source; but a newspaper article from the 1860’s may be a primary source for United States Civil War research.

*From CBB Library and IT Consortium

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Sometimes, the same source might be a primary source for one research paper and a secondary source for another. It all depends on the relationship of the source to your research question. For example, if you are researching Franklin Roosevelt's life, the book  No ordinary time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The home front in World War II  by Doris Kearns Goodwin would be a secondary source. If you were researching the literary style of Ms. Goodwin, it would be a primary source.

*From Joyner Library, East Carolina University

More on Primary Sources

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources: A Quick Guide: Secondary Sources

• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources

What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources are books, periodicals, web sites, etc. that people write using the information from primary sources. They are not written by eyewitnesses to events, for instance, but use eyewitness accounts, photographs, diaries and other primary sources to reconstruct events or to support a writer's thesis about the events and their meaning. Many books you find in the Cornell Library Catalog are secondary sources.

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Explore Information — Primary & Secondary Sources - Humanities & Social Sciences

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Primary & Secondary Sources in the Humanities - Overview

Primary and Secondary Sources are understood in different ways by different subject areas. When you think about primary and secondary sources in your own life, those examples are probably most similar to the way the Humanities and Social Sciences generally understand primary and secondary sources.  See the guide What is a Primary Source for a concise overview.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are original materials on which research is based. They present information in its original form, neither interpreted nor condensed nor evaluated by other writers.  In the humanities and social sciences, these are the direct or first-hand evidence of events, objects, people, or works of art. 

Depending upon the context, primary sources can include items such as original artwork, manuscripts, sales receipts, speeches, e-mails,  photos, diaries, personal letters, spoken stories/tales/interviews, diplomatic records.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources provide commentary upon, interpretation of, or analysis of primary sources.  They put primary sources in context.  Because they are often written significantly after events by parties not directly involved but who have special expertise, they may provide historical context or critical perspectives.

Secondary sources can include items such as scholarly books; articles in newspapers, scholarly journals, and magazines; movie reviews; biographies.

Finding Primary Sources

• Using Library Search (Catalog) to Find Primary Sources

There are lots of places to start searching for primary sources in the Humanities and Social Sciences. Below are some places to start your search.

Library Search

Library Search finds items in the UConn Library Collection, including archival materials, print materials with original text, printed facsimiles, and online resources that link to digital facsimiles. 

For help finding primary sources using Library Search, see the Using the Library Search (Catalog) to Find Primary Sources tab.

Archives & Special Collections holds over 1000 collections of archival materials and primary sources. Primary sources from cultural institutions around the state of Connecticut can also be found in the Connecticut Digital Archive .

Research Guides

Library Subject Specialists create Research Guides that provide information and instruction on research within specific subjects.  Each guide varies, and may include primary source databases and other helpful resources in that field.  For additional help finding primary sources in a subject, contact the subject specialist profiled in the specific research guide.

Selected Primary Source Library Databases and Websites

Search for historical articles in a variety of major American and international newspapers published between 1764-2019. See more info for complete list of newspapers included.

Includes: Atlantic Constitution (1868-1984), Atlanta Daily World (1931-2010), Baltimore Afro-American (1893-2010), Baltimore Sun (1837-1998), Boston Globe (1872-1993), Chicago Defender (1909-2010), Chicago Tribune (1849-2014), Chinese Newspapers Collection (1832-1953), Cleveland Call & Post (1934-2010), The Guardian and the Observer (1791-2003), Hartford Courant (1764-1998), Irish Times and the Weekly Irish Times (1859-2022), Los Angeles Sentinel (1934-2010), Los Angeles Times (1881-2000), Louisville Defender (1951-2010), Michigan Chronicle (1939-2010), New York Amsterdam News (1922-2010), New York Times (1851-2020), New York Tribune / Herald Times (1841-1962), Norfolk Journal and Guide (1916-2010), Philadelphia Inquirer (1860-2001), Philadelphia Tribune (1912-2010), Pittsburgh Courier (1911-2010), Times of India (1838-2011), Vermont Collection, Wall Street Journal (1889-2012), Washington Post (1877-2008)

• Manuscript Women's Letters and Diaries Includes personal writings of women of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, displayed as high-quality images of the original manuscripts.
• Popular Culture in Britain and America, 1950-1975 Includes manuscripts, images, and video content highlighting popular culture from 1950-1975.
• Revolution and Protest Online Includes scholarly books and articles, documentary films and interviews covering revolutions, protests, and social movements from the French Revolution to the Arab Spring.
• Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600-2000 Includes books, images, essays, book and website reviews, and other primary sources covering various women's and social movements between 1600-2000.
• Black Freedom Struggle in the United States: A Selection of Primary Sources Select primary source documents related to critical people and events in African American history. Contains approximately 1,600 documents focused on different phases of Black Freedom.
• Connecticut Digital Archives Wide range of digital resources for scholars, students and the general public from UConn, the Connecticut State Library and other Connecticut institutions and agencies in Connecticut.
• Library of Congress Digital Collections 339 digital collections from the Library of Congress; includes photos, manuscripts, audio, film, and more.
• Primary Source Sets (Digital Public Library) Primary source collections exploring topics in history, literature, and culture developed by educators

Library Search finds items in the UConn Library Collection

Search Using Primary Document-Related Terms

Add words that identify types of primary sources. These are often part of the Subject Heading , a search option in Advanced Search.  These terms may include:

In the Advanced Search, type your topic on the 1st line. On the 2nd line, change the Any field drop-down to Subject and use of the the subject headings that specify primary sources.

Search Using Date

Narrow your search to the year of publication to find contemporary materials.

Search Using Author

Search a person's name as an author (changing the Any field drop-down to Author ).  Search by author, not as a subject or keyword, as that will find materials about the person, not works by the person.

It's All About Context

There is nothing that definitively makes a source "primary" or "secondary" - it's all about the relationship between your research topic and the source material .  The same source can be a primary source OR a secondary source, depending on how you are studying it.

For example, Stephen Oates' 1977 biography of Abraham Lincoln, With Malice Toward None: A Life Of Abraham Lincoln , could be considered a

• Secondary Source, if you are studying the life of Lincoln
• Primary Source, if you are studying texts accused of plagiarism

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Caption: Fugazi Playing the Anthrax Club, Joe Snow Punk Rock Collection. Archives & Special Collections at the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, University of Connecticut Library. Caption: Dunn, K. (2008). Never mind the bollocks: The punk rock politics of global communication. Review of International Studies, 34(S1), 193-210.

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Identifying Primary and Secondary Sources for Humanities

Test your ability to identify items as primary or secondary sources in this quick, interactive exercise!

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Primary Sources Research Guide

• What Are Primary Sources?
• What Are Secondary Sources?
• Examples of Primary & Secondary Sources
• Where to Look for Primary Sources

Defining Secondary Sources

• Secondary sources interpret, analyze, and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources. Examples of secondary sources include scholarly books and articles.
• Secondary sources are generally a second-hand account or observation at least one step removed from the event, i.e., accounts written after the fact by people not present when an event took place. Such sources are second-hand interpretations of what occurred.
• Secondary sources, however, can be considered to be primary sources depending on the context of their use. For example, Ken Burns' documentary of the Civil War is a secondary source for Civil War researchers (because it consists of Burns' interpretation of primary source materials from the Civil War), but a primary source for those studying documentary filmmaking.
• Secondary sources benefit from the filter of time and differing cultural contexts and perspectives which may assist (or interfere with) scholarly analysis.

Secondary sources can include:

• biographical works;
• commentaries and critical reviews;
• books other than fiction or autobiographies
• journal, newspaper, and magazine articles written well after an event takes place

*Some of the above material is used with permission from the University of Pittsburgh Library's research guide on Primary Sources

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• Last Updated: Mar 1, 2024 9:31 AM
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WRI101 Into the Deep Past

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Primary v Secondary Sources

The Standard Definition

In historical writing, a primary source is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time under study. These sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event. Some types of primary sources include: * ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS (excerpts or translations acceptable): Diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, news film footage, autobiographies, official records * CREATIVE WORKS: Poetry, drama, novels, music, art * RELICS OR ARTIFACTS: Pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings Examples of primary sources include: * Diary of Anne Frank - Experiences of a Jewish family during WWII * The Constitution of Canada - Canadian History * A journal article reporting NEW research or findings * Weavings and pottery - Native American history * Plato's Republic - Women in Ancient Greece What is a secondary source? A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources in them. Some types of seconday sources include: * PUBLICATIONS: Textbooks, magazine articles, histories, criticisms, commentaries, encyclopedias Examples of secondary sources include: * A journal/magazine article which interprets or reviews previous findings * A history textbook * A book about the effects of WWI Search by keyword for Primary Sources in the Main Catalog You can search the Main Catalog to find direct references to primary source material. Perform a keyword search for your topic and add one of the words below: (these are several examples of words that would identify a source as primary) * charters * correspondence * diaries * early works * interviews * manuscripts * oratory * pamphlets * personal narratives * sources * speeches * letters * documents

Another Possible Usage

PRIMARY SOURCE (more frequently PRIMARY TEXT) is sometimes used in a different sense in some types of classes. In a literature class, for example, the primary source might be a novel about which you are writing, and secondary sources those sources also writing about that novel (i.e., literary criticism). However, if you were writing about the literary criticism itself and making an argument about literary theory and the practice of literary criticism, some would use the term PRIMARY SOURCE to refer to the criticism about which you are writing, and secondary sources other sources also making theoretical arguments about the practice of literary criticism. In this second sense of primary source, whatever you are primarily writing ABOUT becomes the primary source, and secondary sources are those sources also writing about that source. Often this will be called the PRIMARY TEXT, but some people do use primary source with this meaning.

Tertiary Sources

Just so you can keep up with all the scholarly jargon about sources, a tertiary source is a source that builds upon secondary sources to provide information. The most common example is an encyclopedia. Consider a particular revolution as an historical event. All the documents from the time become primary sources. All the historians writing later produce secondary sources. Then someone reads those secondary sources and summarizes them in an encyclopedia article, which becomes a tertiary source. If someone then collected a bibliography of encyclopedia articles on the topic, that might be a quarternary source, but at that point the whole thing just becomes silly.

Evaluating Sources

• Critically Analyzing Information Sources Some questions to consider when evaluating sources.
• Distinguishing Scholarly Journals from other Periodicals You need a scholarly journal article. How do you know if you have one?

Evaluating Websites

FROM: Kapoun, Jim. "Teaching undergrads WEB evaluation: A guide for library instruction." C&RL News (July/August 1998): 522-523.

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Is a Biography a Primary Source? Details Every Author Should Know

Is a biography a primary source? Good question.

When writing for an audience, adding relevant quotes, excerpts, and data provides credibility to your work. Primary sources reign supreme because information that comes from the original source leaves little room for error. In our digital age, where so much information is repeated from website to website, it’s easy for data to be mistyped, quotes to be misattributed, and information to just be wrong.

It’s similar to the group game, Telephone, that kids play. One person starts the game by whispering a phrase into the person’s ear next to them. The phrase is repeated until it gets to the last person who says the phrase out loud to see if the message changed. When I played it as a little girl, the phrase hardly ever came out like the original. We run the same risk when we copy statistics or information from random websites that aren’t the primary or original source.

In the first half of this article, we’ll answer the question, “Is a biography a primary source?” define what the answer means, and then take a closer look at why biographies are categorized as such. In the second part, we’ll look at what to consider before writing one.

Table of Contents

Is a biography a primary source.

The short answer is no. In most cases, a biography is considered a secondary source; however, there’s a little more to it than that.

A primary source is a first-person account (e.g., direct quote, diary entry) or the original source of information (e.g., a research organization that creates original data for an industry.).

A secondary source is a third-party account where the person or company sharing the information, got it from somewhere else. As I mentioned in the Telephone example, the problem with secondary sources is that since they aren’t the first hands to touch the information, there’s no guarantee that it’s correct. Primary sources aren’t always available, but if you have a choice between the two, do the extra research to find the primary source. It will pay off in the long run.

A biography is a third-person account of another person’s life written by a biographer whose name appears on the cover. The subject of the biography can be living or deceased and the work can be authorized or unauthorized. For these reasons, biographies are classified as secondary sources. 

Related: Biography vs Memoir

The rare occasion when a biography can be used as a primary source is when the biographer is the subject of the content being written.

For example, if one were to write an article that analyzed the works of the American biographer Jean Strouse, her best biographies , Alice James: A Biography or Morgan: American Financier would be considered primary sources.

The source status of her biographies changes from secondary to primary because it is her writing that’s being analyzed not the personal knowledge of what she wrote (unless that was part of the review).

What’s the Difference Between an Authorized and an Unauthorized Biography? 

With an authorized biography, the subject of the work is either involved in the writing process or they’ve given permission for the biographer to write the book. The biographer works with the person to ensure that the information included is correct and approved. This can include talking to close family members and friends to get a more well-rounded, objective view of the person’s life.

Unauthorized biographies are not approved by the subject. Anyone can write an unauthorized biography about anyone they’d like. You don’t need permission, and the final book doesn’t have to be approved to be published; however, unauthorized biographies can be seen as less reliable than approved ones. Content presented as fact may come into question exposing the work to libel, invasion of privacy claims, and other legal issues. To be clear, biographies, autobiographies, and memoirs can all be vulnerable to legal claims, so tread lightly when writing them. 

According to the Writer’s GPS: A guide for navigating the legal landscape of publishing by intellectual property attorney Matt Knight, securing life story rights is key to protecting yourself and your book from legal claims. Regarding life story rights, he says the following:

Life story rights are a collection of legal rights held by an individual regarding a story about someone’s life. The purpose for securing these rights or the permission to use the facts of someone’s life is to protect the writer and publisher from being sued for defamation, invasion of privacy, or the misappropriation of the right to publicity. Life story rights agreements, depending on the breadth of the contract language, allows the writer to use and potentially change or dramatize the life story for entertainment purposes (whether in print or on screen). Knight, M. (2020). The Writer’s Legal GPS: A Guide for Navigating the Legal Landscape of Publishing (A Sidebar Saturdays Desktop Reference) . Sidebar Saturdays Desk Referen.

If you’re considering writing a biography (authorized or unauthorized), it’s important to understand potential liability issues and how they can impact you as the writer.

It’s interesting that for every authorized biography, it is not uncommon to find many unauthorized ones. For actress Elizabeth Taylor, the book on the left (below) was released in December 2022 and listed as “ the first ever authorized biography of the most famous movie star of the twentieth century, Elizabeth Taylor “; however, I found many biographies listed for her over the years (I stopped counting at 20).

Is it Possible to Write a Biography about Yourself? 

No. If you write a biography about yourself it is called an autobiography (different from a memoir). If you get a ghostwriter to write it, it is still an autobiography. Autobiographies are primary sources because they are first-hand accounts based on the subjects’ memories and recall of past experiences. 

Unlike a biography, the subject of the autobiography is viewed as the author , whether they wrote it or used a ghostwriter . Autobiographies are considered subjective compared to biographies since they are a single person’s account of events (not friends, family, or other third-party references like with a biography.)

How do You Write a Biography About Someone Who Has Passed?

As previously mentioned, if you can get permission to write the biography, do so. If the person is deceased, look for a representative, like a family member, or an executor of their estate. It’s important to share with them your plan for writing the person’s life story and hopefully get the green light to move forward. Getting approval can open the door to accessing archives and other personal details about the person to create a more in-depth work. This can include personal photos, diaries, and other information. Compare this to an unauthorized biography where you may only have access to what has already been talked about or uncovered. 

If the person passed a long time ago, getting permission might be a challenge, but you can still write the biography. Just do your research, save your notes, and try to write a biography that is thorough, objective, and professional. Prioritize primary sources over secondary and cite all of your sources to add credibility. It may be tempting to try to rush through the process, especially when you’ve been staring at the same information day after day, but doing a thorough job can pay big dividends.

In the writing of the Pulitzer Prize-winning biography American Prometheus: The Triumph and Trajedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer , it took author, Martin J. Sherwin, 25 years to complete the work. The first 20 years were spent doing interviews and collecting over fifty boxes of archives (some received through the Freedom of Information Act). The last five years he partnered with author Kai Bird to complete the work . While it doesn’t take every biographer that long to write a biography, it does add a weighty perspective to what writing an in-depth book about someone’s life could entail.

Whether you write an authorized or unauthorized biography, the quality and objectivity of your writing are what matter most. Although biographies are considered secondary sources, it doesn’t mean that they can’t make a significant contribution to the tapestry of a person’s public life record. 

Seek out the permission of the person you want to write about if they are living or their family or representative if they are incapacitated or deceased. People’s life stories are personal, so the best advice from one writer to another is to write their stories with the same respect you’d want someone to write yours. This will add a strong entry to your book portfolio, save you a lot of headaches in the long run, and help keep you out of a courtroom.

Note: In this article, we touched on nonfiction life stories, but there are also biographical novels (fictitious) and autobiographical fiction that are not within the scope of this article. For more information on creative nonfiction, start here . 

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Primary and Secondary Sources

• Primary Sources
• Finding Primary Sources

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Scholarly Sources
• Finding Secondary (and Scholarly) Sources

A  secondary source  is one that was created later by someone that did not experience firsthand or participate in the events in which the author is writing about. Secondary sources often summarize, interpret, analyze or comment on information found in primary sources.

Common examples of secondary sources include:

• Biographies
• Literary Criticism
• Journal articles that do not present new research

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Biographies

Use a biography when you are looking for facts and accounts about notable people. An autobiography is a biography in which the author writes about his or her own life. Many biographies focus on one person.Some are collective biographies which have information about multiple people. Some collective biographies are subject specific, like a book or series about famous scientists or one about actors.

When do I use a biography? Use a biography when you need the following:

• quick facts about an individual
• in-depth information about an individual
• information about an individual's role in a specific event (e.g., Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation Proclamation)

Where do I find a biography? Look for a biography in the reference or nonfiction sections of your library. Often the books have a call number of 921, 920 (collective), B or Bio, or the number associated with what the individual is noted for (e. g., athletes in 796 or mathematicians in 510). Use your library's online catalog to find the call number by using the person's name in a subject search. Or, enter the topic you are interested in, like athletes or mathematician s, and adding biography as a keyword.  

How is a biography organized? Biographies can be arranged in a variety of ways. Some cover  a person's entire life, and others focus on a significant contribution or event. In the case of collective biographies, a chapter or section will often focus on one individual.

How do I use a print biography? Think about what information you need. Use the table of contents to see how the book is arranged, and use the index to locate the specific pieces of information you need. In a collective biography, the index will list names of individuals and also related topics and events.

The index will be in alphabetical order by main headings (usually in bold print) and subheadings (usually indented):   

How do I use an online biography? Your public or school library might have eBook biographies about the person you are studying. Check the online catalogs or databases. Also, there are websites dedicated to biographical information, like Biography.com and History.com. Browse by topics or use the website's, eBook's, or database's search features. Or, use a search engine to search the Internet for information about your subject.

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Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

Primary sources, secondary sources, tertiary sources, primary and secondary sources in law.

This work ( Constitution of the United States, page 1), identified by National Archives and Records Administration , is free of known copyright restrictions.

This guide will introduce students to three types of resources or sources of information: primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Definition of a Primary Source: 

Primary sources are firsthand documents that provide direct evidence on your topic.   The Library of Congress refers to them as the "raw materials of history — original documents and objects which were created at the time under study. They are different from secondary sources, accounts or interpretations of events created by someone without firsthand experience."

A primary source is most often created during the time the events you are studying occurred, such as newspaper articles from the period, correspondence, diplomatic records, original research reports and notes, diaries etc. They may also include items created after the events occurred, but that recount them such as autobiographies and oral histories.

Definition of a Secondary Source: 

Secondary Sources are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence. ¹

¹​ Yale University Library, "Primary, secondary & tertiary sources" http://guides.library.yale.edu/content.php?pid=129904&sid=1196376

Definition of a Tertiary Source

A tertiary source presents summaries or condensed versions of materials, usually with references back to the primary and/or secondary sources. 

Primary Source in Law: 

A statement of the law itself from a governmental entity, such as a court, legislature, executive agency, President or Governor.  

Secondary Source in Law: 

Materials that discuss, explain, interpret, and analyze what the law is or what it should be.

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• Reference Books & eBooks
• Articles/Databases
• Primary Sources
• Evaluating Web Resources
• Different Types of Sources
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Citations This link opens in a new window
• Careers and Professional Organizations
• Secondary Sources

What is a primary source?

Primary sources provide the raw data you use to support your arguments. Some common types of primary resources include manuscripts, diaries, court cases, maps, data sets, experiment results, news stories, polls, or original research.  In many cases what makes a primary resource is contextual.  For example, a biography about Abraham Lincoln is a secondary resource about Lincoln. However, if examined as a piece of evidence about the nature of biographical writing, or as an example of the biographer's writing method it becomes a primary resource.

What is a secondary source?

Secondary sources analyze primary sources, using primary source materials to answer research questions.  Secondary sources may analyze, criticize, interpret or summarize data from primary sources. The most common secondary resources are books, journal articles, or reviews of the literature. Secondary sources may also be primary sources. For example if someone studies the nature of literary criticism in the 19th century then a literary critique from the 19th century becomes a primary resource.

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Library Research Guide for the History of Science

Secondary sources.

• Newsletter February 2024
• Research Methods
• HOLLIS (and other) Catalogs
• Finding Primary Sources Online
• Outline of Primary Sources for History
• Background/Context
• Bibliographies
• Digital Libraries/Collections
• Public Health Reports
• League of Nations/WHO
• Personal Writings/Oral History
• Archives and Manuscripts
• Images & Film
• Harvard Collections
• Countway Library
• Boston-Area Repositories
• Citing Sources & Organizing Research
• Digital Collections List

Periodical indexes for general historical secondary sources are listed in Library Research Guide for History .

Bibliographies of Secondary Books and Articles

Look for specialized subject bibliographies in  HOLLIS  or WorldCat : Search <"science and society" [Keyword search] and bibliography [Subject Keyword search]> on Expanded Search screen in HOLLIS Classic or the Advanced search screen in HOLLIS or WorldCat.  Examples of secondary source bibliographies .

Periodical Indexes

• History of Science, Technology and Medicine

Book Reviews

Other Indexes

History of Science, Technology and Medicine [HSTM], 1975- .

Includes books, book chapters, and journal articles. Includes medicine and social science as well as science and technology. Electronic equivalent of four printed indexes:

• Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science and its Cultural Influences , 1975-. [Coverage of book reviews begins (in a small way) in 2000 and becomes substantial in 2002. Enter the phrase "book review" in the title field along with the title of the book. Use print version for earlier book reviews (see below)]
• Current Bibliography in the History of Technology , 1987- . [Book reviews included]
• Wellcome Bibliography of the History of Medicine , 1991-2004. [No book reviews]
• Bibliografia italiana di storia della scienza , 1982- . [Book reviews included]

Since HSTM is an amalgamation of four separate indexes with four different subject term systems, study the results of keyword searches to be sure that you know the proper subject terms for your topic in each of the, possibly four, relevant component databases. For example, the Wellcome Bibliography uses "Contraception" but the Isis Current Bibliography uses "Birth control".

Limiting by Time Period

Note the different terms used by these three indexes: Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science and its Cultural Influences : Pre-history, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance (15th and 16th), 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, 20th century Current Bibliography in the History of Technology: Prehistory, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, 20th century Wellcome Bibliography of the History of Medicine : Ancient, Greek and Roman, Medieval, 13th century , 14th century , 15th century , 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, 20th century

Searching for literature published before 1975 (pre-HSTM)

ISISCB Bibliographic Resources in the History of Science, Technology and Medicine  indexes the Isis Current Bibliography.  Search results extend back to 1970.  It also offers a browse of the  Isis Cumulative Bibliographies  (1913-1975).  Search ISISCB Explore

Isis (1913-1996), together with the Critical Bibliography, is available in JSTOR . You can search just the Critical Bibliography:

• Choose <Search JSTOR>
• Choose <Advanced Search>
• In one search field enter your search terms, leaving the menu at <full-text>
• In another search field enter <’Critical Bibliography’>, adjusting the menu to <item title>
• Enter Isis at <Enter Title>

Note that a single Critical Bibliography is searched as a unit. Thus, the search <Darwin and finches> will return all Critical Bibliographies containing these two words, but not necessarily within the same citation. To find book reviews, enter the book title as a phrase.

Title changed from Critical Bibliography to Current Bibliography in 1989 (v. 80).

Earlier material may also be found in the printed versions

Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science and its Cultural Influences , 1913- (Formerly the Isis Critical Bibliography ) offers annual sparsely annotated bibliographies of current works which accompany each volume of Isis . Book reviews are listed at the end of each issue. HOLLIS Record

Cumulated in the ISIS cumulative bibliography; a bibliography of the history of science formed from ISIS critical bibliographies , 1913-95. 14 v. In the 1913-1965 series, citations for books include reviews; in later series, books reviews are at the back of the last volume. HOLLIS Records

Current Bibliography in the History of Technology , 1964- (Annual in the journal Technology and culture , after 1990 published separately)

Technology and culture , 1964-89 LOCATION: History of Science: PerT 40 LOCATION: Widener: Sci 120.159 Bibliography continued by: Current Bibliography in the History of Technology , 1990- . LOCATION: History of Science LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC T15.Z99 T43x Book reviews are noted in the record for the book reviewed both in print and HSTM.

For earlier literature see: Eugene S. Ferguson's Bibliography of the history of technology . 1968. HOLLIS Record Internet Archive Full Text

Wellcome Bibliography of the History of Medicine (formerly Current Work in the History of Medicine ). London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1954-2004. Section on biographies (including obituaries), no. 150 (Ap/June, 1991)- . Obituaries were separated from Biographies and given their own heading "Recent Obituaries" in no. 158 (Ap/June, 1993). Includes obituaries of physicians from the Times . Some material continues to be added to the Wellcome Library catalogue. Some issues still available online (2000-2004). LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Abst & Ind ZWZ 40 C8 LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Rare Books Serial LOCATION: History of Science: Per C 60

Cumulated in: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine and Related Sciences. 1979-80. Subject Catalogue of the History of Medicine. 18 v. [5 biographical v., 4 topographical v., 9 subject v.] LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Rare Books f Z6207.M4 W45

Bibliografia italiana di storia della scienza , 1982- . LOCATION: History of Science LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC Q125.Z99 B53x -- Bucciantini , M., F.  Guidi  & A.  Lenzi . 1995. The database of the Italian Bibliography of the History of Science.  Nuncius , v. 10, pp. 331-343.

PubMed (1947- ) is the National Library of Medicine's index to biomedical journal articles.

• To limit to historical sources, attach the phrase (in"") "historical article" to your search. Example: "Psychology, clinical" and "historical article".
• Be sure to look for MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) on pertinent records by scrolling down past the abstracts. (Not all records in PubMed have MeSH terms.) Subject headings can help you get to more relevant records and/or can be helpful keyword suggestions.
• Very recent articles may not as yet received their MeSH terms.  So look at older records to find the MeSH terms, and use a variety of keywords as well as MeSH terms to find the new records. The MeSH terms are the same as the Medical Subject terms found in HOLLIS.

Books, book chapters, and dissertations formerly searched in HISTLINE are now in the National Library of Medicine (NLM) online catalog . To limit to historical sources: Under Publication Types, scroll to More Publication Types, and choose Historical Articles. This retrieves books and other material as well as articles.

For earlier literature see: Bibliography of the history of medicine of the United States and Canada, 1939-1960 , by Genevieve Miller, which cumulates the serial bibliography published in the Bulletin of the history of medicine , which carried on through the commencement of the Bibliography of the history of medicine in 1965. LOCATION: Countway Medicine: ZWZ 70 M5b 1964 LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Rare Books Z6661.U6 M14 1964 LOCATION: History of Science: LOCATION: Widener: Med 100.116 A bibliography of articles on the history of American medicine compiled from "Writings on American history" 1902-1937 , by Judson B. Gilbert. LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Rare Books Z6661.U6 G3

Coverage of book reviews in HSTM begins (in a small way) in 2000 and becomes substantial in 2002. Enter the phrase "book review" in the title field along with the title of the book: "Sun Kings" and "book review".

General sources include: Academic Search Premier , the Web of Science and Periodicals Index Online (for pre-1995 books). Additional general sources for book reviews . Some of the specialized indexes and bibliographies listed in this guide carry book reviews.

The best specialized source is:

ISIS cumulative bibliography; a bibliography of the history of science formed from ISIS critical bibliographies , 1913-95. 14 v. LOCATION: History of Science: LOCATION: Widener: RR 5002.36 LOCATION: Wolbach Obs (HCO): Ref Biblio. Cat. Q125.Z99 I87 (Incomplete)

In the 1913-1965 series, citations for books include reviews; in later series books reviews are at the back of the last volume.

For post-1995 reviews check the individual issues of the Current Bibliography, shelved with Isis . Book reviews are listed at the end of each issue. LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Serial, 1913- . LOCATION: History of Science: Per I 50, 1913- LOCATION: Lamont: Periodicals, 1913-2001 LOCATION: Widener: Sci 65.55

Citations for book reviews can often be found in the JSTOR version

• Enter book title in quotes, leaving menu at full text. Reviews of books lacking distinctive titles may be difficult to separate from other occurrences of the search phrase. If the author name is more distinctive than the title, search the author name using the inverted first initial only, e.g., "Righini G."
• Scrolling down, enter Isis at <Publication Title>

Numerous historical articles are published in science rather than history of science journals. Many of these do not appear in history of science indexes. To find these, search the scientific indexes listed in the Periodicals/Article section of this guide.

Bibliography (1998- ) published in Public understanding of science lists books, articles, and Internet resources on science, health and technology in public attitudes, educational institutions (especially museums, zoos, etc.), and mass and interactive media. Print version: LOCATION: McKay Applied Sci: Journal (1999- ) LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC Q225.P8

Bibliography of the history of Australian science, 1981- . In: Historical Records of Australian Science . LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC Q93.A879x

Bibliography: Relations of Literature and Science (1880-2001) was published in Configurations (1993-1999) with citations arranged under broad subjects, with author and topic index. Topic index includes period/century access. Print version: LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC PN55.C66x

For the Configurations bibliographies online: for 1989-1990 in vol. 1, issue 2 (Spring 1993) for 1991-1992 in vol. 2, issue 2 (Spring 1994) for 1993 in vol. 3, issue 2 (Spring 1995) for 1994 in vol. 4, issue 2 (Spring 1996) for 1995 in vol. 5, issue 2 (Spring 1997) for 1996 in vol. 6, issue 3 (Fall 1998) for 1997 in vol. 7, issue 3 (Fall 1999) for 1998 in vol. 9, issue 3 (Fall 2000) for 1999 in vol. 9, issue 2 (Spring 2001) for 2001-2004 Previously published in: Publication of the Society for Literature and Science: PSLS , 1984-88. LOCATION: Not held at Harvard or the Boston area The Relations of literature and science: an annotated bibliography of scholarship, 1880-1980 , edited by W. Schatzberg, R. A. Waite, and J. K. Johnson. NY: Modern Language Association of America, 1987, 458 pp. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3003.82

JSTOR allows simultaneous or individual searching, full-text searching optional, of several history of science journals from their inceptions to about 5 years ago. JSTOR provides a list of included history of science & technology  journals.

Periodicals index online  indexes contents of thousands of journals in the humanities and social sciences, from their first issues to 5 years ago. Covers journals from North America, the UK, and Continental Europe. Includes the complete table of contents for each issue of each journal. Includes book reviews. Indexes the following journals in the history of science:

• Agricultural History
• Agricultural History Review
• Ambix (history of chemistry)
• Annals of Science
• Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences
• British Journal for the History of Science
• Bulletin of the History of Medicine
• Clio Medica
• History and Technology
• History of Science
• Industrial Archaeology Review
• Journal of Garden History
• Journal of the History of Ideas
• Journal of the History of Philosophy
• Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
• Journal of Transport History
• Medical History and Medical History, Supplement
• Medizinhistorisches Journal
• Newcomen Society for the Study of the History of Engineering and Technology, Transactions
• Quipu: Revista Latinoamericana de Historia de las Ciencias y la Tecnologia
• Social History of Medicine
• Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
• Technology and Culture
• Victorian Studies
• Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science
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