literature review on domestic violence during lockdown

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Domestic Violence in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Synthesis of Systematic Reviews

Meghan royle.

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Bitna Kim, Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University, PO Box 2296, Huntsville, TX 77341, USA. Email: [email protected]

This article is made available via the PMC Open Access Subset for unrestricted re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for the duration of the COVID-19 pandemic or until permissions are revoked in writing. Upon expiration of these permissions, PMC is granted a perpetual license to make this article available via PMC and Europe PMC, consistent with existing copyright protections.

The current systematic meta-review aimed to map out, characterize, analyze, and synthesize the overarching findings of systematic reviews on domestic violence (DV) in the context of COVID-19. Specifically, a systematic meta-review was conducted with three main objectives: (1) to identify what types and aspects of DV during COVID-19 have been reviewed systematically to date (research trends), (2) to synthesize the findings from recent systematic reviews of the theoretical and empirical literature (main findings), and (3) to discuss what systematic reviewers have proposed about implications for policy and practice as well as for future primary research (implications). We identified, appraised, and synthesized the evidence contained in systematic reviews by means of a so-called systematic meta-review. In all, 15 systematic reviews were found to be eligible for inclusion in the current review. Thematic codes were applied to each finding or implication in accordance with a set of predetermined categories informed by the DV literature. The findings of this review provide clear insight into current knowledge of prevalence, incidence, and contributing factors, which could help to develop evidence-informed DV prevention and intervention strategies during COVID-19 and future extreme events. This systematic meta-review does offer a first comprehensive overview of the research landscape on this subject. It allows scholars, practitioners, and policymakers to recognize initial patterns in DV during COVID-19, identify overlooked areas that need to be investigated and understood further, and adjust research methods that will lead to more robust studies.

Keywords: domestic violence, family violence, COVID-19, systematic meta-review

Introduction

During the COVID-19 pandemic, domestic violence 1 (DV)— any form of physical, psychological, sexual, economic, or other violence and abuse occurring within the family or domestic setting, including violence against adults (partners, elders, adult children, or adult siblings) as well as minors (children and adolescents) ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Lausi et al., 2021 )—has become a significant issue worldwide, as movement restrictions and lockdown measures force DV victims to spend more time at home with their abusers ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ). Survivors are already isolated to some extent, but quarantine and lockdown have further compounded their situation. This double isolation is characterized by the absence of formal or informal support networks, enabling perpetrators to act without scrutiny or repercussions ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). As Viero et al. (2021) describe, the stay-at-home (SAH) mantra becomes a paradox in the DV context ( Viero et al., 2021 ).

While DV has been a worldwide concern during the COVID-19 pandemic, studies of past epidemics and natural disasters that document their impacts on DV experience and reporting, as well as changes in the delivery of violence prevention and response services, show mixed results ( Piquero et al., 2021 ). Researchers found that the 2014 outbreak of Ebola in West and Central Africa and the 2017 outbreak of cholera in Yemen both led to elevated rates of DV, as well as disruptions in welfare structures, communities, and protection responses ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ). A growing body of research indicates, however, that pandemics and natural disasters reduce violent crime, boost family functioning, and enhance prosocial behavior within communities and families by preserving community trust or strengthening cooperation ( Cerna-Turoff et al., 2019 ).

In Cerna-Turoff et al. (2019) , the first known systematic review and meta-analysis on the topic of epidemics’ and natural disasters’ impacts on violent crime, the researchers investigated the magnitude and direction of the association between natural disasters and various forms of child abuse (CA) within the family or domestic context. They found no consistent association or directional influence between natural disasters and CA. As a result, they suggested that this finding challenges the assumption that DV escalates when epidemics and natural disasters strike. Cerna-Turoff et al. (2019) cautioned, however, that a concrete conclusion could not be reached due to the lack of studies on the subject.

Researchers across the globe have moved quickly to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between DV and COVID-19 and to identify emerging issues related to DV within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, as evidenced by an increasing body of primary research ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ). A systematic review approach has become increasingly common across the disciplines in researching DV associated with COVID-19, as the DV literature continues to grow at a rapid rate. To be able to respond to DV not only during the current COVID-19 pandemic, but also in future pandemics, systematic reviewers have synthesized international findings concerning issues surrounding DV about which researchers, practitioners, and policymakers must remain informed and ready to continue exploring ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ). Recently, the proliferation of systematic reviews on DV during the COVID-19 pandemic has made it challenging to keep up. It is arguably imperative to synthesize the overarching findings of systematic reviews on DV and aim to further advance both researchers’ and policymakers’ efforts to prevent DV during COVID-19 and future extreme events ( Marmor et al., 2021 ).

Current Research

Through the use of a systematic meta-review approach, we located systematic reviews of DV during the COVID-19 published across a range of disciplines, synthesized their findings, and identified DV-specific themes pertaining to policy, practice, and future research implications.

As such, the current systematic meta-review aimed to map out, characterize, and analyze all of the empirical evidence for DV within the context of COVID-19 ( Marmor et al., 2021 ). Specifically, three main objectives guided our systematic meta-review: (1) identifying which types and aspects of DV have been reviewed systematically during COVID-19 (research trends), (2) synthesizing the recent systematic review findings (main findings), and (3) contemplating the implications that systematic reviewers have proposed for policy and practice as well as future primary research (implications). Lastly, this study concluded with recommendations for future systematic reviews of DV during the pandemic based on its synthesis findings.

As the first systematic meta-review of DV in the context of COVID-19, the current review provides a comprehensive overview of the research landscape. The findings will enable scholars to recognize initial patterns in DV during COVID-19, identify areas that need further exploration and understanding, and adapt methods to develop more robust studies ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ). Furthermore, those who assess and intervene with potential DV offenders and victims may find the current systematic meta-review of great interest, as it may provide guidance for tailoring prevention/intervention strategies.

Inclusion Criteria

Only systematic reviews of DVs in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic were eligible for inclusion. Specifically, to be included in the current “systematic meta-review” (i.e., a synthesis of systematic reviews), a systematic review had to meet the following criteria: (1) searched at least one database, in addition to reference checking, hand-searching, citation searching, or contacting primary research authors ( Gibson et al., 2011 ), (2) were published in a peer-reviewed journal using publication as a proxy for research quality ( Kim & Merlo, 2021 ; Pratt, 2010 ), and (3) reviewed the existing literature on DV in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. DV encompasses intimate partner violence (IPV), elder abuse, CA, and any form of violence within the family or domestic setting ( Abdo et al., 2020 ).

Search Strategy and Identified Studies

It is necessary to identify, appraise, and synthesize the evidence contained in systematic reviews by means of systematic meta-review ( Gibson et al., 2011 ; Kim & Merlo, 2021 ). A systematic meta-review approach brings several advantages, including exhaustive literature searches and the ability to synthesize large amounts of information ( Cervero & Gaines, 2015 ; Jaspers et al., 2011 ). Following the Preferred Reporting Item for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines ( Moher et al., 2009 ), two researchers searched through a number of online databases in December 2021, and the search was subsequently updated in March 2022, August 2022, and November 2022. We sought to identify all systematic reviews of DV during the pandemic published in peer-reviewed journals that were available (either in print or in electronic form) that met the inclusion criteria for this review.

The specific electronic databases used were as follows: Criminal Justice Abstracts, Criminology: A Sage Full-Text Collection, Sociological Abstracts, PsychINFO, MEDLINE, Social Science Abstracts, Psychological & Behavioral Science Collection, Health and Safety Science Abstracts, and Current Contents. The following Boolean search strings were used: (“COVID-19” OR “SARS-CoV-19” OR “SARS-CoV-2” OR “2019-nCoV” OR “novel coronavirus” OR “coronavirus”) AND (“domestic violence” OR “domestic abuse” OR “family violence” OR “violence against women” OR “violence against children” “intimate partner violence” OR “abuse” OR “maltreatment” OR “vulnerability” OR “assault”) ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; McNeil et al., 2022 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ).

Hand searches were conducted in two premier journals for systematic reviews and meta-analyses in violence: Trauma, Violence, & Abuse and Aggression and Violent Behaviors (2020–2022). The titles and abstracts of all studies published in Child Abuse and Neglect (2020–2022), where review studies are frequently published, were also reviewed. The search looked for any mention in the title, the abstract, or the keyword list of the words “systematic review” or “literature review” paired with any of the following terms: domestic violence, domestic abuse, child abuse, and family violence. In addition, the reference lists of those articles retrieved from each of the databases and journals were scanned to identify additional systematic review studies. As the last step, after obtaining the initial sample studies through online databases, reference lists, and journals, we checked Google Scholar using the authors’ names to locate studies by the active researchers cited ( Kim & Merlo, 2021 ).

We attempted to obtain copies of each likely candidate and the abstracts of likely references were reviewed to ensure that they used a systematic review approach. In the full-text review, each paper was evaluated according to the inclusionary criteria. As a result of these search strategies and inclusion criteria, 17 systematic reviews were found to be eligible for inclusion in the current review. Supplemental Appendix 1 depicts a PRISMA diagram of the study selection process.

Data Extraction and Coding

Two researchers independently extracted and coded information from each eligible study according to the review protocol. During coding, the primary focus was on identifying and coding study characteristics, main findings, and implications for policy and future research. To achieve this, we followed Wilson et al.’s (2019) meta-aggregation screening and coding procedure. Thematic codes were applied to each finding or implication in accordance with a set of predetermined categories informed by the DV literature. During the coding process, additional thematic codes were created and refined to better capture the underlying themes of a particular finding or implication. Cases of discrepancies in coding were moderated through consultation and agreement ( Kim & Merlo, 2021 ).

Research Trends: Characteristics of Eligible Systematic Reviews

Table 1 displays the study characteristics (i.e., authors’ disciplines, DV types, types of included studies, number of included studies, and national origins of included studies) as well as the main research questions of eligible systematic reviews. The systematic reviews were conducted in a variety of disciplines, including CCJ, gender studies, forensic and legal medicine, social work, education and health gynecology, psychology, psychiatry, medical science, education and humanities, child studies, and nursing. This result reflects that multiple disciplines recognize the seriousness of DV in the context of COVID-19 ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ).

Characteristics of Eligible Systematic Reviews ( N  = 17).

CM = child maltreatment; DV = domestic violence; IPV = intimate partner violence; VAC = violence against children; VAW = violence against women.

Table 1 lists and groups the systematic reviews according to DV type. Nine synthesized the existing research findings on IPV against women ( Bayu, 2020 ; Lausi et al., 2021 ; McNeil et al., 2022 ; Moreira & da Costa, 2020 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ), four covered CA ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ; Rapp et al., 2021 ), and four covered DV against any member of the family (Javed & Mehmood, 2002; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Su et al., 2021 ; Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ). The literature reviewed consists primarily of journal articles, but six systematic reviews ( Bayu, 2020 ; Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ) also included narrative reviews, case studies, forum reports, working papers, commentaries, and letters to editors, which added interesting new insights. In systematic reviews, the number of included studies varied widely, from 3 ( Abdo et al., 2020 ) to 80 ( Bayu, 2020 ). The geographic areas covered by the systematic reviews were varied. Aside from Abdo et al. (2020) , which examined only US-based studies, the remaining 13 reviewed primary studies from multiple countries.

The four main research questions were addressed in systematic reviews, including prevalence and incidence ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Bayu, 2020 ; Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Lausi et al., 2021 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ; McNeil et al., 2022 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ; Rapp et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ; Viero et al., 2021 ), contributing factors ( Bayu, 2020 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; McNeil et al., 2022 ; Moreira & da Costa, 2020 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Rapp et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ; Viero et al., 2021 ), mitigating policies and practices ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Su et al., 2021 ), and emerging issues and patterns of DV studies ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ).

A synthesis of the main findings

Table 2 presents the main findings of each systematic review. The sequence of studies in Table 2 is identical to the one in Table 1 . That is, the studies in Table 2 are listed by DV type. This section presents the main findings according to the research questions and types of DV.

Main Findings.

CM = child maltreatment; DV = domestic violence; IPV = intimate partner violence; SAH = stay at home; VAW = violence against women.

Prevalence and incidence

Several reviews have been conducted to estimate the effect of COVID-19-related restrictions (i.e., SAH orders, lockdown orders) on reporting of DV incidents ( Bayu, 2020 ; Lausi et al., 2021 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ). While several systematic reviews demonstrate that DV cases have increased in most countries during the current outbreak of COVID-19 ( McNeil et al., 2022 ), others suggest that DV has declined significantly over the same period ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ). It has become evident that DV rates differ significantly between data reported by victims and those reported by help professionals (i.e., police officers, anti-DV workers, and healthcare providers) in addition to country-specific variations ( Lausi et al., 2021 ).

IPV against women : As a result of COVID-19 and movement restrictions, many women were confined at home with their abusers while social protection services for them were disrupted, thereby increasing IPV risk ( Bayu, 2020 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ). Basically, systematic reviews have concluded that a “lockdown” at home policy to counter the pandemic has aggravated the problem of IPV against women, causing what the UN has referred to as a “pandemic on a pandemic” ( Bayu, 2020 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; McNeil et al., 2022 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ). Viero et al.’s (2021) systematic review, for example, discovered a massive increase in IPV-related calls as well as police reports in Argentina, Canada, China, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the UK, and the United States once restrictions were put in place to combat the outbreak. In addition, the systematic reviews provided information about specific circumstances associated with increasing IPV in the COVID-19 context. Globally, DV increased in the first week following the COVID-19 lockdown, according to Kourti et al. (2021) . Sánchez et al. (2020) also note that IPV against women has been increasing not only among low- and middle-income nations but also in high-income regions where social distancing measures are in place.

The COVID-19 lockdown has generally been acknowledged to be a substantial issue regarding IPV; however, some systematic reviewers have introduced primary studies that present a different picture ( Kourti et al., 2021 ). As an example, Viero et al. (2021) reported a dramatic decline in IPV victim requests for help during the lockdown. Nevertheless, Viero et al. (2021) , along with other systematic reviewers, caution that this result should not be interpreted as indicating a reduction in IPV cases since home confinement can limit victims’ access to help ( Kourti et al., 2021 ).

Among the systematic reviews in the current systematic meta-review studies, Piquero et al. (2021) precisely estimated the effect sizes of COVID-19-related restrictions on IPV incident reports by conducting a meta-analysis. The findings of this meta-analysis were based on police crime/incident reports, police calls for service, hotline registries, and health records before and after COVID-19 restrictions. An analysis of primary study results revealed that 29 studies reported an increase in IPV post-lockdowns, while eight studies reported a decrease. The meta-analysis results showed that SAH/lockdown orders caused a 7.86% increase in IPV incidents, and the effects increased, even more, when only US studies were considered, showing that 8.10% more incidents occurred.

For assessing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on IPV, Lausi et al. (2021) synthesized the results of studies comparing IPV rates before and after the SAH policies were implemented. Importantly, they divided IPV studies into categories based on data sources and compared data from victims (e.g., data collected from anonymous online surveys) with those from help professionals (e.g., help lines, healthcare system, or police system). It was found that IPV rates differed substantially between data sources and between countries. Studies with victim data showed an increase in IPV during SAH policies, particularly verbal, emotional, and psychological violence. Physical assault episodes decreased, but their severity worsened. Among the findings of this study, most female IPV victims reported that they did not seek help or report that abuse to authorities during the SAH period.

In contrast to studies with victim surveys, based on data from help professionals, the number of victims contacting hospitals and calling helplines during the pandemic appeared to be lower than in previous years. Lausi et al. (2021) included five studies using data collected from police reports. Mixed results were found in these studies. IPV increased by 8.1% during the pandemic period compared to the same period in previous years, according to a UK study. Specifically, IPV calls from third parties (e.g., neighbors) and high-density areas increased. In contrast, both US and Australian studies found no significant differences in IPV over the SAH period. Finally, Mexico City’s Attorney General’s office reported a significant decrease in IPV. In an explanation of these mixed responses, Lausi et al. (2021) claimed both increases and decreases were due to the increased IPV (e.g., fewer police calls due to increased stalking and control by abusers).

CA : The prevalence and incidence of CA within the family or domestic context have been examined in several systematic reviews ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ; Rapp et al., 2021 ). Compared to IPV against women, the number of police and social service reports of CA declined significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Kourti et al. (2021) , decreased rates during the COVID-19 pandemic were more likely due to the limited detection opportunities associated with the closure of schools and other educational resources, not by a decrease in incidence. Furthermore, a lack of willingness to visit hospitals for issues not related to COVID-19 led to professionals having less ability to keep an eye on children for signs of abuse, resulting in CA being underreported during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Rapp et al., 2021 ).

In examining the rate of CA during COVID-19, several systematic reviews have found mixed results, depending on the data collection method ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Marmor et al., 2021 : Rapp et al., 2021 ). Specifically, studies using police reports and official referrals to child protective services showed an overall decrease in CA, but the reviewed articles using other data collection methods, such as hospital reports, surveys, and calls to helplines, showed a significant increase ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ). The expert opinion articles also indicate an increase in CA and neglect cases ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ). Among the reasons for the discrepancy between expert opinion articles and the actual published data, Abdo et al. (2020) noted that high demand for expert evaluation and follow-up occurred during COVID-19, leading to CA case numbers being overestimated, whereas COVID-19 may not have affected those who were chronically exposed to highly stressful environments and adverse economic conditions.

Contributing factors

In view of the fact that the review studies identified too many factors contributing to increased vulnerability to DV during the pandemic and the social distancing measures, the current systematic meta-review classified the factors based on an ecological framework, one of the most widely used theoretical models in DV research ( Kim, 2021 ). This classification strategy provides a better understanding of DV dynamics on different ecological system levels ( Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ). Based on an ecological model of DV, we analyze it at four levels, namely ontogenetic (i.e., the individual’s development history), microsystem (i.e., the family unit), exosystem (i.e., the formal and informal social structures), and macrosystem (i.e., societal and cultural values and beliefs), and assumes that each of these domains contributes to risk and protective markers ( Kim & Merlo, 2021 ).

Ontogenetic (individuals)

IPV against women—Victimization : Five systematic reviews delineated the sociodemographic characteristics and psychopathological vulnerabilities of female IPV victims ( Bayu, 2020 ; McNeil et al., 2022 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ). There is mounting evidence that the COVID-19 pandemic caused economic instability and worsened gender, sexual orientation, disability, race, and ethnicity inequalities ( Bayu, 2020 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). According to Viero et al. (2021) , women are particularly vulnerable to IPV and have been economically dependent on abusive partners in the wake of the pandemic. As a result of the pandemic, there has been an increase in job losses and unemployment, especially among migrants, women of color, and those with little or no education. Mental health issues and other psychological states, such as stress, anxiety, and depression, were also frequently identified as contributing to female IPV victimization ( Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ). Besides identifying individual contributing factors, systematic reviewers detailed the mechanisms of female IPV victimizations. The COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with measures to restrict contact and movement, can lead to economic and social stresses, which result in alcohol and substance abuse, exacerbating psychopathological conditions that contribute to perpetrators engaging in IPV against women ( Bayu, 2020 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ).

IPV against women—Perpetration : In three systematic reviews, IPV perpetrators’ personal characteristics were examined ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ; Viero et al., 2021 ). Women were at greater risk of becoming IPV victims, whereas men were more frequently reported as perpetrators ( Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ). Aside from the stress of confinement and financial uncertainty, which were also identified as factors contributing to female IPV victimization, gender role attitudes, control desires, and aggressive and controlling behaviors have all been linked to increased IPV perpetration by male partners ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ).

CA—Perpetration : As a result of SAH orders and limited access to teachers, who are mandated reporters, children have been particularly vulnerable during the COVID-19 pandemic. Syibulhuda and Ediati’s (2021) systematic review is unique in that it compares risk factors for CA perpetration before and during the pandemic. CA perpetration is still related to socioeconomic conditions and mental health, and this has been the case both prior to and during the pandemic, according to the review results. Childhood experience, however, had only been identified as a risk factor for CA perpetration before the pandemic ( Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ). In another systematic review, Rapp et al. (2021) found that CA perpetration is associated with increased parental stress.

Microsystem (family and relationships)

IPV against women : A systematic review found that forced lockdowns and work-from-home policies affect the dynamics in families, particularly those with middle and low socioeconomic status ( Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ). Families that live in crowded homes and have decreased income are at the greatest risk of stress, anger, frustration, and conflicts within the families ( Bayu, 2020 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; McNeil et al., 2022 ). Apart from these tense family situations, dependence on partners, increased controlling behavior, a lack of assertive communication, and fatigue also contribute to the high rates of IPV against women during a pandemic. In addition, IPV victims are struggling to implement security plans due to the fear of contagion and a lack of social contacts and support around them ( Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ).

CA : In a systematic review by Bayu (2020) , the only one to examine the factors contributing to CA at the microsystem level, staying with an abusive parent during the COVID-19 emergency was found to contribute significantly to the rise in CA. Bayu (2020) further highlighted that children are victims of DV as well if they witness it being perpetrated against an adult in the home.

Exosystem (community)

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many DV shelters closed or were converted into health centers ( Bayu, 2020 ). The abusers exploit victims’ inability to ask for help or escape due to this community factor, namely a lack of services and support organizations for DV victims and difficulty in accessing these services, which contributes to high DV rates ( Bayu, 2020 ; Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ). Another exosystem-level risk factor is the lack of mental health services since DV victims exposed to their abusers more often during the pandemic require increased mental health services ( Su et al., 2021 ). In a pandemic, it is crucial not only to increase the number of community services available to DV victims, but also to improve the quality of services. Poor performance in the health sector, including the lack of training given to health professionals in screening and identifying DV cases and a high priority placed on care associated with COVID-19 at the expense of DV intervention, contributed to the high incidence of DV during the pandemic ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ). Living in remote rural areas, as well as facing restrictions on activities or difficulty accessing normal community activities, can further isolate a person and make it harder to seek help, leading to higher DV rates ( Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ).

Macrosystem (culture/laws)

Macrosystem-level risk factors for DV during a pandemic have only been examined in a small number of primary studies. However, systematic reviews have repeatedly stressed their importance as major causes and triggers of DV ( Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ). During a pandemic, a lack of firm policies related to DV matters contributes to a high rate of IPV against women during that pandemic ( Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ). The economy at the national level, however, does not influence DV levels during a pandemic. IPV against women was evident both in economically fragile regions and in economically affluent ones, according to Kourti et al.’s (2021) systematic review. It is important to have social welfare and other policies at the macrosystem level to cushion the negative impacts of the economic crisis caused by COVID-19 ( Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ).

Mitigating policies and practices

Four systematic reviews identified and synthesized the specific multidisciplinary interventions and strategies needed to address DV within the context of COVID-19 ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Su et al., 2021 ). These practical and timely solutions primarily focus on reducing victims’ exposure to abusers and improving their access to services. The two types of platforms available are face-to-face and virtual ad-hoc help-seeking solutions ( Su et al., 2021 ).

Face-to-face help-seeking solutions

In systematic reviews, two main results were presented regarding face-to-face help-seeking programs undertaken during the COVID-19 period when access to help was restricted ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Su et al., 2021 ). First, results indicated that European countries and Canada have more successfully and actively implemented initiatives for communicating the code word (either verbally or in writing) for abused women who cannot access virtual channels ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ). For example, in France, Germany, Italy, Norway, the Netherlands, and Spain, there is a specific code called “Mask 19,” which enables abused women to initiate help-seeking activities. In the UK, “ANI” (which stands for “Action Needed”) allows domestic abuse victims to seek immediate assistance at participating pharmacies, while in France, “Safe Word” emergency alert systems, and in Canada, “The Signal for Help” hand gesture, have been implemented ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Su et al., 2021 ). Also, in the UK, there is a “silent solution” where DV victims can call an emergency line (999), tap their fingers on the phone or cough as an alternative to speaking, and if prompted, can press 55 on the phone to specify an emergency ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ).

Another finding is that community sectors and public places play a crucial role in facilitating help-seeking for women who cannot access virtual resources ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ). In France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Norway, and Argentina, pharmacies and grocery stores have been used to provide essential services, like using confidentiality codes and distributing informative handouts ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ). Postal workers and delivery drivers in the UK have also been asked by the police to watch out for signs of abuse and to notify police and social services on behalf of DV victims ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Su et al., 2021 ).

Virtual help-seeking solutions

Many countries, especially high-income countries such as Norway, Germany, France, Spain, Italy, and Argentina, have promoted virtual help-seeking services to reduce the time and effort DV victims spend seeking help ( Su et al., 2021 ). In particular, DV victim centers have benefited from ad-hoc online help-seeking platforms, which have provided DV victims with a comprehensive set of health and safety resources without the need to search for another website ( Su et al., 2021 ). Shelters, victim support centers, helplines, and police departments have also used virtual channels, such as websites and messaging applications, to maintain contact with DV victims and provide support resources. This has minimized the risk of exposure to COVID-19 and ensured the victim’s privacy and security ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ).

Studies on DV: Emerging issues

In systematic reviews of studies on DV during the COVID-19 pandemic, systematic reviewers have explored and discussed emerging issues ( Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). Three major issues were identified in the current study. Studies of DV often discuss factors contributing to an increase in DV incidence that are specific to COVID-19 ( Nasution & Fitriana, 2020 ). Several factors have consistently been identified as contributing to the surge in DV over the years ( Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ). The roles of COVID-19, however, were interpreted inconsistently. According to Pentaraki and Speake’s (2020) literature analysis, COVID-19 can be viewed as a context that exposes and exacerbates preexisting inequalities or as a cause of DV. Specifically, some researchers have suggested that COVID-19 conditions are merely factors that aggravate or trigger DV instead of causing DV ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). Others, however, argue that DV aggression results from frustration and agitation generated by the COVID-19 context ( Mazza et al., 2020 ). Pentaraki and Speake (2020) warn that this approach risks scapegoating COVID-19 as a cause of DV.

There is also an emerging concern about how useful online support measures have been during the pandemic among DV victims. A systematic review by Pentaraki and Speake (2020) found several articles concluding that providing online support is not appropriate and effective in cases of DV during lockdowns, despite this technique’s popularity. Two reasons lead to this conclusion. On the one hand, the provision of online support can pose risks to DV victims, since the perpetrator may be monitoring online communication channels. In addition, victims may be confined to small spaces and spend more time with the perpetrator, making it difficult to communicate safely and confidentially with virtual support services ( Campbell, 2020 ). It is also unlikely that all women have access to stable internet or can afford communication or broadband technology in some regions of the world due to extreme poverty ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ; Ragavan et al., 2020 ).

The third emerging issue relates to the scope and methodology of DV studies on COVID-19. According to systematic reviews, DV definitions vary greatly between studies, resulting in virtually no generalizable results ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ). Physical and psychological violence are the subjects of most DV studies surrounding COVID-19, and sexual violence and verbal abuse are understudied ( Kourti et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, in light of the study methodologies, DV studies were found to be inconsistent in their study designs and have often relied on administrative data, such as helpline reports. Police reports, surveys, and big data are less commonly used ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Viero et al., 2021 ). Research results regarding changes in DV rates during COVID-19 vary according to the method used to collect data ( Lausi et al., 2021 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ). In general, researchers have faced difficulty conducting rigorous studies on the trends in DV incidence during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Viero et al., 2021 ).

A Synthesis of Policy and Practice Implications

We reviewed the policy and practice implications in the included systematic reviews and identified six recurring themes, including basic and extensive-intensive services, digital equality and alternative avenues to online, intersectional approaches, training and education, multidisciplinary approaches, and collaborations. This section discusses the implications based on these themes.

Both Basic and Extensive-Intensive Services

In addition to operating specialized centers and volunteer initiatives, systematic reviewers have noted the importance of maintaining and providing basic services for DV victims in their community ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ). At a time when women and children needed DV services more than ever during COVID-19, evidence suggests that basic services decreased and were disrupted as resources were diverted to deal with the pandemic ( Bayu, 2020 ). Because of the pandemic’s long-term impact, basic support services and programs must be maintained, expanded, and diversified to prevent DV, ensure the continuity of quality care, identify DV signs, and provide support to DV victims in the event of a pandemic ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ). Among these services are helplines and child protection services ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ). As a way to resolve barriers to help-seeking during the pandemic, such as inadequate information about community-based DV services and concerns about contracting the virus at service points, several authors recommended routine screening for DV during remote primary care consultations ( Bayu, 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ).

The systematic reviewers also called for more comprehensive and intensive services. For screening, identifying, and addressing DV cases throughout and after the COVID-19 pandemic, intensive law enforcement, social services, victim advocacy follow-up, and transitional housing options are vital ( Piquero et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ). Basic as well as extensive-intensive services to DV victims cannot be provided without the government dedicating resources to service providers ( Marmor et al., 2021 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ).

Digital Equality

Since DV facilities have been closed in response to social isolation and regulations of COVID-19, efforts have been made to create and implement online interventions and web-based services to reach out to those women and children at the greatest risk of DV ( Marmor et al., 2021 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ; Viero et al., 2021 ). A few examples are developing apps, expanding remote victim services, and implementing abuse screenings and safety planning through telehealth ( Piquero et al., 2021 ; Viero et al., 2021 ). In fact, a growing body of evidence suggests that technology-based online interventions may benefit DV victims and may result in better outcomes than traditional in-person interventions ( Su et al., 2021 ). Rural areas and poor countries, however, do not have high-speed internet access and DV victims cannot afford technology for communication and broadband. In this context, researchers emphasized the importance of designing and developing online systems that are accessible via low-tech devices ( Su et al., 2021 ). More importantly, the digital divide should be addressed with greater digital equality , along with free or low-cost technology, in an era of rapid advancements in online interventions and web-based services for DV victims during the pandemic, to ensure that no one is left behind ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ).

Community Development

Special attention needs to be paid to DV victims or those at risk with no private space and who are confined with perpetrators because of lockdown measures. For them, seeking online assistance is difficult, and remote support is unsafe ( Bayu, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). There should be alternatives to technology-based online interventions available to this group. Systematic reviewers highlighted the value of community development work and the need to mobilize all sectors of the community to address DV during pandemics ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). As a good example, the use of specific colors or codes to activate the help-seeking process in the community through pharmacies and supermarket chains has been implemented in European countries and Canada during COVID-19 ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Su et al., 2021 ). As part of their intriguing proposal, Su et al. (2021) suggested repurposing hotels for shelter homes during a pandemic. By integrating hotels into a coordinated community response to DV, the massive negative impact of COVID-19 on tourism could be effectively managed. In addition, Su et al. (2021) stressed the importance of places in the community where victims can pack an escape bag or pick up resources, tips, and supplies discreetly if they wish to escape their abusers during a lockdown.

An Intersectional Approach to Marginalized Groups

Both evidence and history support the conclusion that pandemics exacerbate gender and intersectional inequalities, and marginalized groups face additional challenges ( Marmor et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ). In addition, people with mental illness or chronic health conditions, immigrants or refugees, and those living in remote rural areas are some of the groups who are disproportionately isolated during the pandemic ( Piquero et al., 2021 ). It is crucial to understand how a pandemic affects marginalized groups and create policies, plans, and responses that are effective, sensitive, responsive, and equitable ( Bayu, 2020 ). During the COVID-19 pandemic, emergency measures often fail to consider the different needs of marginalized groups ( Bayu, 2020 ).

Systematic reviewers have urged policy responses and resources to address DV, taking into consideration the intersection of families and children’s social identities ( Marmor et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). Other than culturally adapted screening instruments ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ), DV services based on an intersectional approach for marginalized groups have also been proposed ( Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). As an example, Pentaraki and Speake (2020) recommended that governments exclude DV victims from restrictions on movement during lockdowns. Moreover, Pentaraki and Speake (2020) underlined the importance of implementing public policies for DV prevention, protection, investigation, and punishment in remote rural areas.

Training, Education, and Campaign for Health Professionals, Teachers, and the Public

Health professionals have played a crucial role in identifying and managing DV cases during the pandemic. Accordingly, several authors have highlighted the importance of training and education for health professionals, particularly psychiatrists, radiologists, dentists, and maxillofacial surgery teams ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ). A key component of health professional training and education is information about early signs of abuse, technical knowledge, and remote primary care consultations ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ). Cappa and Jijon (2021) also suggested that teachers should be trained on how to recognize signs of CA to stay vigilant.

Systematic reviewers have recommended extending educational efforts to community members ( Su et al., 2021 ). In COVID-19, public campaigns via television or social media, along with informative leaflets and handouts, are considered cost-effective ways to educate the public on available services and new policy initiatives ( Kourti et al., 2021 ). Su et al. (2021) proposed expanding the campaign’s scope to include both DV victims and abusers. Specifically, through integrated campaign interventions, communication and marketing resources need to deliver persuasive messages to DV victims, encouraging them to seek help, as well as educating DV offenders about the laws, regulations, and social consequences associated with DV abuse, which reduces the likelihood of further DV.

Multidisciplinary, Multi-Agency, and Cross-Country Collaborations

According to systematic reviewers, multipronged and multidisciplinary strategies are needed to address DV, both amid and beyond the pandemic, since DV solutions require people and resources from diverse fields, namely healthcare, law enforcement, laws, education, social science, social work, and technology ( Bayu, 2020 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ; Su et al., 2021 ).

Several systematic reviews also emphasize the need for collaboration and integration among different systems and social services when collecting data, selecting indicators, assessing impact, and designing interventions to combat DV ( Marmor et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ).

Specific examples of multi-agency partnerships include collaboration between police and local health protection teams to identify vulnerable women and children through linked datasets ( Viero et al., 2021 ) and team-based response units between COVID-19 testing and vaccination sites, police agencies, and DV response organizations to conduct abuse screenings and safety plans ( Piquero et al., 2021 ).

Furthermore, the systematic literature reviews emphasize the importance of international collaborative effort during a pandemic to develop key recommendations, establish an international protocol, and integrate international assistance into developing countries, and countries where technology-based solutions and legal frameworks are limited, to protect DV victims ( Bayu, 2020 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ). Technology advances have made multilingual experts around the world potential sources of assistance for DV victims. Global organizations and government agencies should therefore implement a system that connects international experts with individuals experiencing or at risk of DV all over the world ( Su et al., 2021 )

A Synthesis of Future Research Implications

Policy implications have been a focus during the systematic reviews related to COVID-19, but some reviews have outlined subject areas that merit more primary research, along with suggestions for research designs. Four recurring themes were identified, including longitudinal research, reliable and valid data, marginalized groups, and international/comparative research.

Longitudinal Research

It is still too early to tell what will happen with the pandemic. In the existing synthesis studies, primary studies were conducted during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic ( Rapp et al., 2021 ). The vast majority of studies investigating DV changes in response to pandemic-related lockdown orders only used short observation periods ( Piquero et al., 2021 ). Although it is evident that the COVID-19 pandemic has created a variety of circumstances that are known to indicate an increase in DV, DV continues to be high globally regardless of whether a pandemic is occurring, and services for DV remain critical regardless of the circumstances ( Cerna-Turoff et al., 2019 ). According to some experts, as people adjust to the new reality and seek assistance, these rates will steadily decline as the pandemic progresses ( Kourti et al., 2021 ). There is currently no way to fully assess the COVID-19 pandemic’s long-term impacts on DV ( Marmor et al., 2021 ; Rapp et al., 2021 ).

Previous studies of natural catastrophes have demonstrated that it takes at least 1 year to confidently conclude that natural disasters cause greater levels and severity of DV than those found in non-disaster settings ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Cerna-Turoff et al., 2019 ). Systematic reviewers have recommended conducting longitudinal studies through ongoing data collection to determine if DV incidence has remained the same or changed over time during and after the pandemic, as well as if risk factors for DV remain similar or change over time ( Piquero et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ; Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ). A comprehensive understanding of pandemic effects and their aftermath requires more well-designed studies published over time with more representative samples ( Abdo et al., 2020 ).

Reliable and Valid Data

Even though a large volume of literature exists on DV during COVID-19, most studies are not data driven, and few rigorous empirical studies estimate DV incidences during COVID-19 ( Abdo et al., 2020 ; Viero et al., 2021 ). According to several systematic reviews, DV data remain limited and of poor quality due to the absence of internationally accepted standards for measuring and producing statistics, as well as selection bias present in police, healthcare, and administrative datasets ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ; Rapp et al., 2021 ). DV cases are defined and handled differently in different countries, states, and even different cities. It is possible that this variability has contributed to different DV reporting rates and incidence rates during COVID-19 ( Rapp et al., 2021 ).

The primary limitation of research conducted during COVID-19, aside from these general concerns about DV data, is the lack of data directly collected from DV victims ( Rapp et al., 2021 ). In part, this is due to social isolation, which makes it difficult to reach out to victims. Victim perspectives are essential to fully understand the nature and context of DV during COVID-19. The systematic reviewers recommend that future research should strive to develop innovative methods for including DV victims as active participants in their studies ( Marmor et al., 2021 ).

DV studies conducted within the COVID-19 context mainly focus on women and children, leaving out other family members ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ). Data were also lacking for DV among men and non-heterosexuals during COVID-19 ( Bradbury-Jones & Isham, 2020 ; Kourti et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). In directing future research, systematic reviewers have urged the scientific community to use reliable and valid data from multiple sources, including police agencies, shelters, clinical settings, and self-report victimization records so that they could estimate the varying forms of DV against different family members during and after the COVID-19 outbreak ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Piquero et al., 2021 ).

Marginalized Groups

As discussed previously, systematic reviewers have concluded that DV could be effectively addressed by an intersectional approach to prevention, screening, and intervention ( Sánchez et al., 2020 ). There are, however, only a few primary studies included in the existing systematic reviews that examine specific risk factors associated with marginalized groups ( Marmor et al., 2021 ). The cultural and contextual differences, as well as the possible disproportionate effects of the pandemic and restrictions on DV among vulnerable individuals in the community, were often overlooked in studies ( Marmor et al., 2021 ). Specifically, there was a shortage of literature on the current topics pertaining to people of color, the elderly, children, the disabled, the LGBT community, immigrants, asylum seekers, refugees, closed religious communities, and other minorities ( Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ). As recommended by systematic reviewers, future DV research should investigate the moderating effects of cultural, gender, religious, and other social identities on COVID-19/DV relationships, as well as how marginalized groups are affected differently by DV risk and protective factors ( Javed & Mehmood, 2020 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ; Pentaraki & Speake, 2020 ).

International and Comparative Research

The global nature of COVID-19 warrants further international and comparative research on DV ( Rapp et al., 2021 ). It is important to conduct international and comparative research on the pandemic’s impact in different countries that takes into account cultural norms, such as health behaviors, and the intersectionality of social identities, all of which may contribute to the unique combinations of risk factors and protective factors specific populations may experience ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Marmor et al., 2021 ). In addition to providing insights into DV trends during and after the pandemic, an international and comparative approach would allow for fully integrated findings and provide insights into possible imbalances in the pandemic’s effects on DV across different contexts and sectors of society ( Marmor et al., 2021 ).

Systematic reviewers have emphasized the importance of international collaboration to share information about DV during and after the COVID-19 pandemic ( Marmor et al., 2021 ). Additional information on the risk factors associated with DV at the different ecological levels is critically needed ( Dutton, 1995 ). Among the recommended strategies is to establish an international information registry. This registry, together with international data entry standards, will enable cross-country comparisons and generalizations of key findings on DV in pandemic contexts ( Cappa & Jijon, 2021 ; Rapp et al., 2021 ). Developing effective prevention measures will be impossible without these global efforts to accumulate the evidence base ( Marmor et al., 2021 ).

Public health leaders, women’s and children’s groups, and policymakers worldwide have expressed concerns about the pandemic’s potential to cause a spike in DV. The need for a better understanding of DV within the COVID-19 context cannot be overstated ( Piquero et al., 2021 ). To address this need, the present study synthesized 15 systematic review studies published across various disciplines pertaining to DV during the COVID-19 pandemic using a systematic meta-review approach. It is hoped that the findings of this review provide clear insight into current knowledge of prevalence, incidence, and contributing factors, which could help to develop evidence-informed DV prevention and intervention strategies.

Despite its contributions, we must acknowledge two limitations of this study. The first limitation relates to our search strategy. The current systematic meta-review did not search gray literature. Therefore, we cannot guarantee that we located all relevant systematic reviews ( Waller et al., 2021 ). Including detectable gray literature, however, would increase selection bias, since it is impossible to determine the representativeness of gray literature ( Tsuji et al., 2020 ). The quality of gray literature is also a concern, as most gray literature is not peer reviewed ( Pratt, 2010 ). Overall, we believe that ensuring the quality of systematic reviews included and preventing selection bias outweighs the concern about potential publication bias ( Kim, 2022 ; Pratt, 2010 ). Second, we need to recognize the inherent limitation of a systematic meta-review approach with regard to its contents. Because our meta-review relied on systematic reviewers’ work, it is less likely to provide the same level of detail reported in the primary studies ( Kim & Merlo, 2021 ). In other words, synthesizing systematic reviews may inevitably result in information loss as we move from primary studies to systematic reviews and then to the systematic meta-review ( Gibson et al., 2011 ). As a solution to this inherent limitation, we checked the primary studies whenever necessary to identify the details.

Implications for Future Systematic Reviews

The findings section outlines themes that recur in the implications for future primary research that the studies’ systematic reviewers proposed. Here we discuss four areas where systematic reviewers’ attention is warranted.

DV service provision systems : Prior systematic reviews have consistently described primary studies on health sectors in various countries, observing commonalities in the process and roles related to DV intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Kourti et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2020 ). Comparatively, concerning DV service provision systems, no systematic review exists. Instead, one existing systematic review ( Su et al., 2021 ) briefly summarized the development of DV services provision systems as well as legislation in three example countries (Australia, the UK, and China). According to Su et al. (2021) , Australia and the UK have similar DV service provision systems and adequate DV legislation, but China’s DV service provision systems lack availability, accessibility, and awareness, and their legislation is inadequate ( Su et al., 2021 ).

In the existing systematic reviews, there is very little data available on DV service provision systems, as well as no synthesis of research on the COVID-19 pandemic impact on these systems. There have been few primary studies on this topic, which might explain this ( Garcia et al., 2022 ). Several emerging studies, however, have examined the early-phase impacts of COVID-19 on domestic and family violence service provisions in multiple countries ( Carrington et al., 2021 ; Johnson et al., 2020 ; Murugan et al., 2022 ). These studies explored the views and experiences of service providers and practitioners on how they have adapted to changes in DV service delivery during COVID-19. Examples include studies conducted in Australia ( Carrington et al., 2021 ; Cortis et al., 2021 ; Pfitzner et al., 2021 ), the United States ( Garcia et al., 2022 ; Voth Schrag et al., 2022 ; Wood et al., 2022 ), and the UK ( Riddell & Haighton, 2022 ).

A brief review of the available studies revealed that four major service adaptations and changes have occurred across countries as a result of COVID-19, involving the shift toward remote service provision ( Carrington et al., 2021 ; Cortis et al., 2021 ; Riddell & Haighton, 2022 ; Sapire et al., 2022 ; Voth Schrag et al., 2022 ; Wood et al., 2022 ), a reduction in overall service capacity ( Cortis et al., 2021 ; Wood et al., 2022 ), inter-agency collaborations ( Garcia et al., 2022 ; Murugan et al., 2022 ; Riddell & Haighton, 2022 ), and the provision of limited DV services to historically oppressed or marginalized groups ( Garcia et al., 2022 ; Sapire et al., 2022 ).

These emerging studies also identified the unique characteristics of DV service provision systems and the challenges each country faced during the COVID-19 pandemic. As an example, in Australia, DV services transformed from preventative, early intervention approaches to crisis driven, reactive responses as a result of victims’ isolation with perpetrators ( Cortis et al., 2021 ). In the UK, national initiatives were introduced, while local authorities created their own service specifications. A range of specialist domestic abuse services was also delivered by the voluntary sector organizations ( Riddell & Haighton, 2022 ). In the United States, Sapire et al. (2022) reported that disruptions to gender-based violence services caused by the COVID-19 pandemic compounded long-term policy and funding constraints, leaving DV service providers unprepared for the challenges posed by the pandemic.

Further systematic reviews are needed to fully understand the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on DV service provision systems and policies worldwide ( Garcia et al., 2022 ). Specifically, the similarities and differences among countries in DV service adaptations, modifications to safety plans for survivors undergoing SAH and social distancing orders, and emergency preparedness plans must be identified, documented, and evaluated in systematic reviews. Using information from future systematic reviews, policymakers and service providers can prioritize DV services in emergencies, improve DV service delivery during a pandemic like COVID-19 by addressing barriers, and elevate policies addressing the structural oppressions affecting DV ( Garcia et al., 2022 ; Sapire et al., 2022 ; Wood et al., 2022 ).

Domestic homicide (DH) : The COVID-19 pandemic accompanied by uncertainty and unrest lead to an increase in firearm sales in the United States ( Lynch & Logan, 2022 ; Lyons et al., 2021 ). The link between firearm access and the risk of lethal IPV is well established ( Kaukinen, 2020 ; Wood et al., 2022 ), but little empirical research appears to have been conducted on the COVID-19 pandemic’s effects on DH. Lynch and Logan (2022) are among the exceptions. Based on the perception of DV service providers, this study examined gun violence and firearm access in the context of the pandemic. Nearly 30% of respondents reported that firearm-related homicides increased during the pandemic. Their responses, however, were not verified through official data.

While the limited data have been inconsistent outside the United States, reports have emerged of an apparent increase in DH during the COVID-19 pandemic. Through the analysis of newspaper articles, Barchielli et al. (2021) found that the number of women killed in the family/affective sphere in Italy increased by 5% during the COVID-19 lockdown. Furthermore, Bradbury-Jones and Isham (2020) reported in their editorial letter that DH incidences in the UK have increased since lockdown restrictions were implemented. Yet, they cautioned that it was too early to tell whether the increased reporting of these deaths was due to increased media attention or an actual increase in DH rates. Indeed, Stripe (2020) found an increase in the number of DHs recorded by the police in England and Wales in 2020, compared to the same period in 2019, but a slight decline compared to 2018.

Among the most rigorous studies with official data and sophisticated statistical techniques are Asik and Ozen (2020) , which examined the effect of social distancing measures on female homicides in Turkey. Compared to the same period between 2014 and 2019, the probability of a woman being killed by an intimate partner declined by about 57% during the period of strict social distancing measures, and by 83.8% during curfews. Given that most women are killed by ex-partners or by partners they are seeking separation from, Asik and Ozen (2020) suggested that the physical inability of ex-partners to reach the victims, fewer women leaving their current partners due to economic hardships and fears of infection, and/or an increased risk of being caught, may have contributed to the decline in DH. A number of potentially conflicting mechanisms may be at play in the pandemic, leaving questions about how it will affect DH ( Asik & Ozen, 2020 ). Further systematic reviews are needed to identify the prevalence and incidence of DH and to evaluate how country-specific situational factors, like firearm ownership, moderate COVID-19’s effects on DH rates ( Lynch & Logan, 2022 ; Wood et al., 2022 ).

Cases of heterogeneous perpetrators, victims, and circumstances : A variety of factors have contributed to DV vulnerability during the pandemic, according to systematic reviews. However, systematic reviewers have failed to identify and synthesize empirical research findings concerning risk factors specific to each social identity, suggesting that future systematic reviews need to pay particular attention to a heterogeneous group of perpetrators and victims with different social and economic backgrounds.

Existing systematic reviews cannot provide a comprehensive explanation of DV in the context of COVID-19, primarily due to the lack of discussion on macrosystem-level contributing factors. Researchers, especially feminist scholars, have emphasized the need to frame DV research within a social and cultural context encompassing all aspects of macrosystems, particularly the social norms around gender roles and patriarchy ( Malmquist, 2013 ). A macro-level contributory factor must be incorporated into future assessments of DV risks during pandemics ( Scott, 2020 ).

Each country implemented different protection measures at different times and in different ways. It could be helpful to compare the prevalence and patterns between countries with and without specific COVID-19 protection measures to understand the impacts of such measures on family dynamics and DV. In systematic reviews, the vast majority of primary studies included were conducted in developed countries, despite DV being a global issue. The more empirical research is conducted in developing countries, the easier it becomes for systematic reviewers to combine the findings and compare them with those from primary studies in developed countries, ultimately giving us more generalizable findings in the field.

Meta-analysis with an ecological perspective : The current systematic meta-review results suggest that the causes of DVs during COVID-19 may be complicated, and contributing factors may vary based on victim–perpetrator relationships, families, communities, and countries. Since all but one of the systematic reviews in the current study used a descriptive approach, this study was unable to directly compare the relative significance of contributing factors. To expand our knowledge of DV in the context of a pandemic, future systematic review studies need to employ a meta-analytic approach by estimating and comparing the effect sizes of different ecological system levels of risk factors to predict DV perpetration and victimization, which, in turn, can help practitioners identify potential offenders and victims in advance. There may be differences in the relative significance of the factors contributing to DV during the pandemic compared to what they were before ( Syibulhuda & Ediati, 2021 ). The results of a meta-analysis will be useful to fully integrate the findings and identify changes in the contributing factors’ effect sizes before and during the pandemic ( Marmor et al., 2021 ).

DV in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic has been a subject of substantial scholarly inquiry across multiple disciplines. Our systematic meta-review contributes to the DV literature since it provides a more complete picture of DV by synthesizing systematic review results, identifying gaps in research and policies, and recommending future directions. Taken collectively, our findings suggest that DV occurs in a predictable and non-random manner, but within pandemic contexts, it exhibits diverse characteristics and dynamics. A single intervention will not be able to prevent all types of DV victimizations during the pandemic. When researchers and policymakers better understand the nature of DV and types of victimizations, they can allow limited resources to be allocated more efficiently and prevention strategies to be targeted at areas of greatest need. The development of evidence-informed policies, programs, and practices will require more systematic reviews and meta-analyses, especially those that apply the ecological approach as well as the multidisciplinary approach. It is also crucial that the international DV research community collaborates in order to better document, prevent, and address the potential for significant spikes in DV related to pandemics and develop strategies for knowledge dissemination.

Critical Findings:

The research questions most frequently addressed in the DV and COVID-19 systematic reviews included in the current study relate to prevalence and incidence, contributing factors, mitigating policies and practices, and emerging issues in studies on DV in the context of COVID-19.

The recurring themes related to policy and practice implications discussed in systematic reviews included basic and extensive-intensive services, digital equality, community development, an intersectional approach to marginalized groups, training/education/campaign for health professionals, teachers, and the public, and multidisciplinary, multi-agency, and cross-country collaborations.

The recurring themes associated with implications for future primary research discussed in systematic reviews included the need for longitudinal research, reliable and valid data, the sample of marginalized groups, and international and comparative research.

Implications of the Review for Practice, Policy, and Research:

Multipronged and multidisciplinary strategies are needed to address DV, both amid and beyond the pandemic, since DV solutions require people and resources from diverse fields, namely healthcare, law enforcement, laws, education, social science, social work, and technology

Systematic reviewers have recommended conducting longitudinal studies through ongoing data collection to determine if DV incidence has remained the same or changed over time during and after the pandemic, as well as if risk factors for DV remain similar or change over time

Future systematic review studies need to employ a meta-analytic approach by estimating and comparing the effect sizes of different ecological system levels of risk factors to predict DV perpetration and victimization, which, in turn, can help practitioners identify potential offenders and victims in advance.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-tva-10.1177_15248380231155530 for Domestic Violence in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Synthesis of Systematic Reviews by Bitna Kim and Meghan Royle in Trauma, Violence, & Abuse

Author Biographies

Bitna Kim , Ph.D., is a Professor in the Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology at Sam Houston State University. Specific areas of interest include a systemic review and meta-analysis of the risk factors and intervention/programs, multi-agency partnerships, and international/comparative criminology and criminal justice.

Meghan Royle , M.A., is a doctoral student in the Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology at Sam Houston State University whose research focuses on health criminology and related constructs. She graduated from the Univesity of Maine in 2019 with a B.S. in biology and from Sam Houston State University in 2021 with an M.A. in criminal justice and criminology.

In this article, the term “domestic violence” (DV) refers to all forms of violence committed within a family or domestic context. The term “intimate partner violence” (IPV) refers to a case of violence against partners, whereas the term “child abuse” (CA) refers to a case of violence against children.

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Supplemental Material: Supplemental material for this article is available online.

References marked with an asterisk indicate systematic reviews included in the current systematic meta-review.

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Domesticated Poly-Violence Against Women During the 2020 Covid-19 Lockdown in South Africa

Mzikazi nduna, siyanda oyama tshona.

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Received 2020 Sep 1; Accepted 2021 Jun 7; Issue date 2021.

This article is made available via the PMC Open Access Subset for unrestricted research re-use and secondary analysis in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for the duration of the World Health Organization (WHO) declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic.

Globally, increased domestic violence against women during the 2020 Covid-19 lockdowns concerned researchers, policymakers, governments and the civil society. In South Africa, an increased risk for gender-based domestic violence against women during the lockdown period was reported by various sources including the national gender-based violence call centre (GBVCC), the South African Police Service (SAPS) and the civil society. Covid-19 lockdown encouraged spatial distance: a public health measure. This measure inadvertently created social distance and social disconnection. Public life, which is frequently a coping mechanism and an escape for some women and girls at risk of domestic violence, was curtailed by the lockdown rules that forbade movements. Informal sources of help for victims of abuse were limited due to closed economic activities, and community-based helping services for domestic violence were not permitted to open. Some victims of domestic violence struggled with public transportation to access informal help, visit the police, social workers and other sources of help. Some organisations offered online and telephone services. The increased risk of gender-based domestic violence during the lockdown is indicative of poly-violence that women are exposed to. The risk of the domesticated poly-violence during crisis periods could be averted by focussing on risk reduction for all forms of violations against women.

Keywords: Alcohol, Covid-19, Domestic violence, Gender-based violence, South Africa, Violence against women

Introduction

The South African society has one of the highest rates of gender-based violence against women in the world (Durbach, 1999 ; Gender Links & Medical Research Council, 2011 ; Jewkes et al., 2010 ; Mpani, 2015 ; Plaatje, 2007 ). Gender-based violence is complex and refers to a vast range of violations perpetrated against women in defence of patriarchal traditional values, gendered hierarchy and sex-role expectations that uphold society’s control over feminine and gender-nonconforming persons (Grootboom, 2016 ; Kiguwa et al., 2015 ; Mazars et al., 2013 ; Mkhize et al., 2010 ; Mpani, 2015 ). Gender-based violence against women is endemic in South Africa (Borer, 2009 ; Durbach, 1999 ; Gqola, 2015 ; Plaatje, 2007 ). Studies by organisations such as the Medical Research Council and Gender Links report that 1 in 4 adult women in the general population have experienced gender-based violence (see, Mpani & Nsibande, 2015 ). South Africa reports a high femicide rate, which is five times the global average (Mathews et al., 2014 ). Police records (Brodie, 2020 ) show that nearly 3000 women were killed in South Africa in 2017/2018, an increase of 11% from the previous year. Sexual assault also increased by 8.2% from 6271 to 6786. A 2013 study conducted by Gender Links in four provinces reported that a large proportion of men (Gauteng 78%; Limpopo 48%; Western Cape 35%; and Kwa-Zulu Natal 41%) admitted to committing some form of violence against women in their lifetime (see, Mpani & Nsibande, 2015 ). In the domestic sphere, perceptions that a woman has transgressed gendered sex-role expectations may cause tensions and arguments that turn violent (Brear & Bessarab, 2012 ; Brümmer, 2012 ; Gibbs et al., 2020 ; Gqola, 2015 ; Struthers & Meyer, 2012 ). Service centre data, including police statistics are a gross underestimation of violations against women because many of these experiences are not reported (Brodie, 2020 ).

Studies have consistently shown that high levels of alcohol use is linked to increased levels of gender-based violence and femicide (GBV + F) against women (Mpani, 2015 ; Mpani & Nsibande, 2015 ; Palmer et al., 2009 ; Zinzow et al., 2010 ). Alcohol abuse refers to regular or occasional excessive consumption of alcohol causing harm to self and others (Mpani, 2015 ). Notwithstanding race and gender differences in patterns of alcohol use, South Africa is named as having the highest level of adult per capita alcohol consumption in Africa (Mpani, 2015 ; Statistics South Africa, 2016 ). Research suggests that removing excessive alcohol drinking could significantly reduce domestic violence and increase safety for women (Dworkin & Peacock, 2013 ; Mazars et al., 2013 ; Mpani, 2015 ; Mpani & Nsibande, 2015 ). Alcohol-aggression theories explain the effect of alcohol and intoxication on aggression through diminished behaviour inhibition (Gibbs et al., 2020 ; Lange, 2002 ). Intoxication may make the aggressor (perpetrator) to see the actions of the target (the victim) as ambiguous; intoxication exacerbates these perceptions on the side of the aggressor/perpetrator. In gender-based violence incidents, the behaviour of the victim may be perceived, by the perpetrator, as arbitrary and threatening. Alcohol impairs cognitive systems and in a state of intoxication the aggressor may not pay attention to alternative cues and act to resolve what appears to be an ambiguous situation to them, by resorting to violence. The aggressor may thus act in defence and against the perceived threat (from the victim).

The Context

The disproportionate impact of crisis on women has been documented across the globe. Epidemics such as the 2014 Ebola Virus Disease, for instance, placed women and girls at increased risk of violence as found in a rapid assessment of violence against women and girls conducted by the International Rescue Committee (IRC) (Abel & McQueen, 2020 ; Bond, 2020 ). A study on the effects of this same epidemic found multi-level reasons for the intersectionality of discrimination against women, echoing the increased victimisation of women in times of crisis such as outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics (Abel & McQueen, 2020 ; Bond, 2020 ). This and other studies have shown that closures of public spaces and quarantines expose women and girls to more sexual violence, coercion, and exploitation as a manifestation of structural inequities and weaknesses in gendered socio-economic and health systems across the globe (Abel & McQueen, 2020 ; Bond, 2020 ). South Africa has a history of violence, including violence against women. Post-Apartheid, millions of women are raped each year and yet very few men are brought to books and admit the crime (Gqola, 2015 ). In September 2019, the President of the Republic of South Africa declared violence against women, including femicide, as a national crisis.

At the beginning of the global lockdowns, a violent spike was expected and predicted in some places. Abel and McQueen reported that gun and ammunition sales soared in the USA, while in Switzerland justice departments prepared for increases in domestic violence ( 2020 ). This paper examines the manifestation of gender-based domestic violence against women taking into consideration the limited availability of one of the factors associated with increased domestic violence: alcohol abuse. This paper focuses on the South African context and offers an enquiry into the perception that domestic violence (DV) incidents have increased during the 2020 Covid-19 lockdown. Globally, business as usual ceased for many as the novel corona virus (Covid-19) forced the society into country-wide lockdowns across the globe, with the exception of a few (Abel & McQueen, 2020 ; Bond, 2020 ). During the hard lockdowns, alcohol sales and public drinking were suspended in South Africa (COGTA, 2020 ). This created a “natural experiment” to examine the hypothesis that, removal of excessive alcohol use would reduce men’s use of violence against women (Gibbs et al., 2020 ).

The Natural Experiment to the Hypothesis about Violence Against Women During Pandemics

Against the background that links alcohol to violence, the Covid-19 curfews and lockdowns provided a “natural experiment” to test a hypothesis that reduced excessive alcohol use would reduce reports of Gender-based Violence Against Women (GBVAW). The enquiry examines the probable impact of ‘ reduced’ alcohol drinking on rates of reported domestic violence during the 2020 Covid-19 lockdowns. This paper is wholly based on desktop review of the limited information that was available, less than a year into the pandemic.

The examination offers an analysis for domestic violence patterns that were reported during the 2020 Covid-19 lockdowns and makes recommendations for gender-based violence against women interventions. This study followed the rapid assessment methodology. This is a research method that is commonly used where data is needed quickly and where local constraints rule out conventional research approaches (Mpani, 2015 ). There are two sources of data for violence against women: surveys and police service records. In this case, the rapid desktop assessment of service records was used to gather context specific desktop data as survey studies were not yet available due to the state of emergency. Desktop service records assessments were an appropriate method given the physical movement restrictions that were in place in South Africa at the time; this method has been used in other studies of violence against women during the lockdown (Buttell & Ferreira, 2020 ). Presentations, papers, media reports, grey literature and other communication around gender-based violence during the lockdown were electronically accessed.

Gender-Based Domestic Violence During Covid-19 Lockdown

At the beginning of the year in 2020, public health measures were adopted to regulate the spread of the novel corona virus. Social distance public health measures that put in place restrictions to movement meant that women at risk of domestic violence were in their homes, some with an abusive partner (Buttell & Ferreira, 2020 ; Tisane, 2020 ; UNFPA, 2020 ). The UN warned that “ as people spend more time in close proximity in household isolation…women and children are at risk of experiencing higher levels of violence ” (UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ). Indeed, Google shared that by the end of March 2020, just about a month into the lockdown, there was a 70% spike in online searches for the words “domestic violence shelters” (Tisane, 2020 ; UNFPA, 2020 ). 1 The number of women calling domestic violence support services was reported to have risen significantly in various countries where a national lockdown was implemented (Tisane, 2020 ; UNFPA, 2020 ). Parts of Asia, North and Latin America and Europe showed a significant rise in the number of women calling helplines and reporting abuse (UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ; UNFPA, 2020 ). Increases in domestic violence were reported in places such as Australia, France, India, Wuhan, Spain, Brazil, Cyprus, and New Orleans (Buttell & Ferreira, 2020 ; Tisane, 2020 ). In Tunisia, calls to a helpline in the first days of confinement increased fivefold. In Italy, calls to helplines dropped sharply; however, SMS and emails to support services increased (UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ). This resultant “ horrifying global surge in domestic violence ” (Tisane, 2020 ) was not entirely unanticipated (Abel & McQueen, 2020 ).

South Africa, saw the surge of gender-based violence since the implementation of the national lockdown, with 87 000 gender-based violence complaints in the first month (Tisane, 2020 ). South African news reported that Police statistics for the first week of lockdown showed that more than 2300 complaints of gender-based violence were recorded. An interpretation of the South African Police Service’s data suggested a reduction in reported cases of domestic violence (Dartnall et al., 2020 ). However, an examination of routinely collected data from the gender-based violence command call centre (the GBV CCC) suggested an increase of gender-based violence toward women in the domestic sphere. The GBV Command Call Centre categorised calls related to child custody, visitation, maintenance, counselling, depression, marriage and relationships as non-GBV, yet some of these could have been related to domestic disputes that are fraught with violence. The service record statistics also grouped alcohol related domestic disputes with other substances; thus, making it impossible to discern the effects of alcohol on domestic abuse. Despite these data challenges the increased reporting of domestic violence was confirmed by people who work on violence against women on the ground. A critical question to ask is whether alcohol abuse was reduced by the lockdown and closure of official alcohol sales.

Alcohol Use and Reported Rates of Domestic Violence

With lack of reliable data on alcohol use during the lockdown, it is difficult to delink this unexpected hike in domestic violence from alcohol use. Alcohol consumption may have continued in a number of places that could not be policed at the beginning of the lockdown. The UN raised a concern that since unhealthy consumption of alcohol is already linked to an increased likelihood of intimate partner violence, the risk for alcohol misuse may have become ‘ more acute during the COVID-19 crisis’ (UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ). Alcohol consumption continued for those with private bars because drinking in private homes was not barred; therefore, it is not possible to assume a reduction in alcohol drinking for people who keep alcohol in their private homes. Alcohol consumption was also made possible by robberies of liquor stores and home-made brewing in some instances. It is also not possible to estimate a reduction in excessive and binge alcohol drinking for those who had access to bootleg and illicit purchases of alcohol. It is also possible that the risk for binge and excessive drinking at the beginning of the lockdown may have accompanied the psychological panic and increased with being home. The next question that arises is, could women’s risk for domestic violence have been avoided and how?.

Social Distancing Became Social Disconnection During the Lockdown

In less individualised social and cultural contexts, people are used to turning to each other when times get rough (Abel & McQueen, 2020 ). During the lockdown, spatial and social distancing measures created problems of access to informal sources of support for domestic disputes (UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ). Women, in particular, may avoid formal sources of help due to shame, fear of reprisals, or lack of knowledge on how to access available help (UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ). Help seeking for abused women was severely impacted during the lockdown period as community-based services for abused women were closed and some shifted their services to online and telephone assistance (Buttell & Ferreira, 2020 ; UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ). It is possible that this period increased awareness of the availability of the national command centre and redirected help-seeking behaviours of abused women away from community services and to the toll-free hot-lines; thus the national toll-free lines were confronted, for the first time, by the extent of the scale of the problem of domestic violence that they had never dealt with before (Buttell & Ferreira, 2020 ). To complicate this, the close proximity and increased visibility of police and security officers in communities may have falsely increased confidence that reports of domestic violence would be taken seriously and help posted immediately. Thus, up to 40% of women who normally would not seek help (UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ), may have reported violence with the hope that with the presence of the lockdown patrol police, help will be dispatched sooner. The other question to address relates to the credibility and specificity of the service record data. The question is whether this data is indicative of increased reporting, increased risk of new incidents of violence or severity for those already exposed.

Reported Rates of Domestic Violence During the 2020 Covid-19 Lockdown, What do They Mean

Violence against women is a continuum of behaviours that women experience in their lives; these violations are spread across institutions. During the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown, schools, churches, workplaces, recreational activities and other public spaces were closed. Women were home and not exposed to taking public transport to participate in economic activities. Based on the profiles of perpetrators of violence (Mpani, 2015 ) brothers, friends, neighbours, schoolmates, uncles, fathers, grandfathers and others were in close proximity: at home. Women and girls as their children, nieces, grandchildren, partners and wives bore the brunt as they were confined with their abusers (Dartnall et al., 2020 ). It is thus possible that the reported violence was an indication of poly-violence that is meted out by men in various spaces; this violence was now shifted to the domestic space. We use the term ‘poly-violence’ in this paper to highlight the multiplicity of violence that is meted against women.

Multiple sexual partnering is common among cisgender heterosexual men in South Africa and the lockdown period may have locked these men in with one partner (Soul City, 2008 ). If this was a main partner in a society where the function of women’s bodies is regarded as to sexually service men (Gqola, 2015 ), his expectation for conjugal rights and sexual entitlement may have exacerbated domestic tensions, disagreements, and violence arising from refusal to have sex. Some men, as providers in their homes, expect sexual favours as a duty of their partner to demonstrate her reciprocity towards their material contribution to the home (Brear & Bessarab, 2012 ). Women are already at risk of relationship and domestic violence and their experiences during the lockdown may indicate increased prevalence and severity, rather than new incidents of violence. The reporting may be prompted by the frequent occurrence and the severity of the violence thus increasing the calls to service centres.

During the lockdown, women who were in processes of separation or divorce may have had their plans halted and remained stuck with their abusers. This is so, as some lawyers and courts reduced their capacity and others closed (UN Joint Global Programme, 2020 ). Community-based organisations that assist women with legal aid also closed and women at risk of violence from their partners were unable to escape the toxic situations.

At the start of the lockdown, all schools and the post-secondary school and training systems closed. With children at home, it is possible that this created a space for experimental and binge drinking for some young people. Under-age drinking is already a problem in South Africa (Sabi & Rieker, 2017 ) and is associated with domestic and other kinds of male participation in violence (Mpani, 2015 ). It is possible that during the lockdown; youth violence may have resulted in domestic disputes and these were reported to the service centres.

The four examples in the preceding paragraphs demonstrate how men’s propensity for violence may have been domesticated during the lockdown as perpetrators of violence shifted their target to the women in their domestic sphere. The domestication of gender-based violence should awaken the conscience of the society to realise the poly-violence that women and girls are generally exposed to; to which the risk remains regardless of where women are (Nduna, 2020 ). The lockdown demonstrated once more what feminist scholars of gender-based violence emphasise: that patriarchy is the root cause of violence against women, including domestic abuse (Brear & Bessarab, 2012 ; Gqola, 2015 ; Motsei, 2017 ). Gender-based violence against women is a tool that is used to chastise, discipline, sanction, teach a lesson; to create a dutiful woman (Motsei, 2017 ). Thus, all probable situations as discussed here may have increased incidence, prevalence, and severity of violence against women.

Domesticated Poly-Violence

Poly violence refers to the idea that women are at risk of multiple forms of violence at different places. Women are not safe from gender-based violence at schools (Centre for Applied Legal Studies & Cornell Law School’s Avon Global Center for Women and Justice and International Human Rights Clinic, 2014 ; Mncube & Madikizela-Madiya, 2014 ), in churches (Whitson, 1997 ), in colleges and universities (Bennett, 2009 ; Kiguwa et al., 2015 ), and  even in the workplace (Jewkes & Abrahams, 2002 ). Women experience microaggressions and are side-lined (Bosch, 2020 ). Violence against women in public spaces is normalised and in these public institutions, girls and women experience violence from sober men. The perpetrators of various forms of gender-based violence spent time at home during the Covid-19 lockdown ( arguably sober ); their domestic partners were at risk of violence exposure and hence an increase in reports of domestic violence when the society least expected it. This increase was alarming despite the fact that service data are known to be an under representation of the extent of actual women’s experiences of violence as many women victims do not seek help (Dartnall et al., 2020 ).

Putting Feminist Foresight in Hindsight

The safety of women around the world, whether inside or outside their homes remained the overarching issue during the Covid-19 perilous times (Dartnall et al., 2020 ; Tisane, 2020 ). To curb the threat of domestic violence, governments in various parts of the world took corrective measures, as 90% of cases were thought to be triggered by the unprecedented Covid-19 pandemic (Tisane, 2020 ). Measures ranged from apps which allow individuals to seek help without making a call, use of “code-words” to alert help-services and authorities of a case of domestic violence, which will then amount to the relevant authorities offering help (Tisane, 2020 ). Where possible, domestic violence perpetrators were evicted from the house, and court fees related to protection orders were waived (Tisane, 2020 ). Tisane warned that “some women have a greater chance of surviving COVID-19 than they do of surviving domestic violence” (Tisane, 2020 ). Yet, in many countries, South Africa included feminist foresight was ignored. Feminist foresight here refers to the early warnings that were issued by organisations such as the UN Women who understand women’s risk for violence.

Conclusions

Given the context of violence against women during the Covid-19 lockdown, South Africa’s violent past in the context of Apartheid (Gobodo-Madikizela et al., 2014 ) does not wholly explain the surge of domestic violence against women between March and July 2020. This paper provides insights in terms of alcohol aggression and yet is limited in its ability to produce depth because of lack of reliable and good data from the services used. Routinely collected service data is not reliable as some potential domestic violence cases (in particular those related to child custody, maintenance, marital problems, etc.) were logged as 'non-violent/non-gbv' by the command centre (Nduna & Tshona, 2020 ). Using readily available desktop data, which was not collected using tailored data collection tools, and is not aggregated and detailed, it is difficult to ascertainwhether it is the gender-based domestic violence against women or if it is the reporting of such instances that has increased during the Covid-19 lockdowns. Either way, this study is crucial as it highlights the poly-violence that women are exposed to and how this risk is domesticated in times of curfews. This study further presents a hypothesis to be tested; which is that it is possible that men who are at risk of harmful drinking practices are the same men who are at risk of perpetrating violence (Gibbs et al., 2020 ), and that one does not cause the other, but an external factor causes both. The main external factor is patriarchal gender norms which socialise men into use of violence in relationships. Notably, this hypothesis is drawn from gender-based violence outside of pandemic situations and the pandemic might add to the external factors.

Recommendations

Based on the observations from the ‘natural experiment’ as presented here; programmatic recommendations are possible. There needs to be continued and sustained investment in interventions with men to reduce use of violence through behaviour-change interventions: promote gender equitable values, encourage alternative conflict resolutions and better communication skills. Whilst this recommendation is not specific to lockdown, reduction of men’s use of violence generally will have positive impacts for the society to deal with future crisis such as the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown.

There is a need to strengthen support systems for women who plan to escape from an abusive situation; these include women in the process of separation and divorce. This support needs to be strengthened during curfew periods. Women should be provided with safe shelter, over and above what is normally available, or the perpetrators should be ordered by the court find alternative homes.

In the context of Covid-19, gender-based violence and femicide (GBVF) was noted as a ‘shadow, twin, silent, parallel’ epidemic and yet researchers have long suggested that the government needs to mobilise massive resources and implement stringent measures to ensure the preservation of life, as GBV is responsible for pre-mature deaths in women. The government is capable, and in a position to galvanise and implement efforts, with precise measures to address gender-based and domestic violence, which has been rightfully declared a national crisis with lives lost daily. As the prognosis of the Covid-19 pandemic is unknown, national consultations with women-led organisations in preparing disaster management interventions to reduce violence against women are needed. At the time of publishing this special issue, the South African government had set up a Solidarity Fund to address GBVF through local community-based organisations. 2

This paper identifies a few gaps in knowledge about gender-based violence against women during times of lockdowns. Groundbreaking research to understand the risks, dynamics and solutions to this problem is needed. Whilst some of this research can be conducted online, researches need to be mindful of the digital divide bias in such studies (Tshwaranang Legal Advocacy Centre & University of Pretoria’s Centre for Human Rights, 2021 ). Access to the internet and to cellphone network is not universal in South Africa. This means that research will have to blend online with face to face methods.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Anheuser-Busch InBev's Thematic Working Group for Violence Prevention who inspired the writing of this article. We also thank Lutukela Nduna who assisted with the initial desktop literature review. The feedback from all three blind reviewers of the manuscript was useful in aiding us improve the manuscript; we would like to acknowledge the time that they took to read the first draft. The support of the DSI/NRF Centre of Excellence in Human Development towards this article is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the DSI/NRF CoE-HUMAN

Authors’ Contributions

MN and OT conceptualised the paper, prepared the manuscript and approved its submission. The authors jointly addressed the reviewer’s comments and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Declarations

Conflicts of interests.

The authors have no competing interest or any competing interests to disclose.

Ethics Approval

The study was mainly desktop based and did not require ethics clearance.

https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/breakfast/reports-75-per-cent-spike-in-searches-for-help-with-domestic/12101690 .

See https://solidarityfund.co.za/ .

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Mzikazi Nduna, Email: [email protected], Email: [email protected].

Siyanda Oyama Tshona, Email: [email protected].

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Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence during Lockdown and the COVID-19 Pandemic

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• Published: 26 February 2021
• Volume 37 , pages 969–977, ( 2022 )

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Previous studies have demonstrated that there is an increase in Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) during times of crisis (e.g., financial, environmental, or socio-political situations). The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered an unprecedented global health and financial tragedy, but research is yet to establish exactly how the situation may impact on IPV. The present study investigates victims’ experience of IPV during lockdown and the COVID-19 pandemic. We report a qualitative thematic analysis of 50 discussion forum posts written by victims of IPV. Of these, 48 forum posts were written by female victims of male perpetrated violence. All forum posts were obtained from the popular online platform, Reddit. We identified four themes associated with IPV victims’ experiences during lockdown and the global pandemic: (i) Use of COVID-19 by the Abuser, (ii) Service Disruption, (iii) Preparation to Leave, and (iv) Factors Increasing Abuse or Distress. The COVID-19 pandemic has had a substantial impact on those living with IPV, often increasing the severity of IPV experienced. The experiences of those affected by IPV during this period inform interventions and the guidance and support provided to IPV victims during times of crisis.

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The outbreak of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is likely to have severe negative consequences for victims of intimate partner violence (IPV; Boserup et al. 2020 ; Bradbury-Jones and Isham 2020 ; Peterman et al. 2020 ; Usher et al. 2020 ). IPV consists of a wide range of behaviours between current or former romantic partners, encompassing sexual, psychological, physical, and financial abuse of differing degrees (Peterman et al. 2020 ). Although male perpetrator-female victim is the most common pattern, female perpetrators and male victims are not unusual (Hines and Douglas 2009 ). In addition, IPV occurs in same-sex relationships at a prevalence comparable to heterosexual relationships (Rollè et al. 2018 ). Research has linked times of uncertainty (e.g., natural disasters, civil unrest, virus outbreaks, economic insecurity) to increased violence within families, including abuse directed towards romantic partners (see Peterman et al. 2020 for a review). Indeed, there are already anecdotal accounts reporting a pandemic-related escalation of violence against women and girls in several regions of the world (Peterman et al. 2020 ). In order to develop effective strategies for intervention and prevention, it is essential to gain knowledge of the dynamics that underlie the exacerbated incidences of partner violence during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

There are several potential direct and indirect mechanisms influencing the increase of IPV perpetration during the virus outbreak (Peterman et al. 2020 ). First, the pandemic has increased rates of unemployment to unprecedented levels (Kawohl and Nordt 2020 ), pushing many households into poverty. IPV has well-recorded links with financial stressors (e.g., Lucero et al. 2016 ; Schwab-Reese et al. 2016 ), and could have complicated interactions with factors such as emasculation and alcohol use (Peralta et al. 2010 ). In addition, financial hardship may result in a reduced likelihood of the victim leaving the abuser. Financial abuse could, in fact, be one of the many strategies for the perpetrators to prevent their victim from escaping (Eriksson and Ulmestig 2017 ). In effect, financial hardship can increase stress and put more strain on relationships, as well as reduce opportunities for the victim to leave.

Second, social isolation measures related to the pandemic leave many victims without social contacts, housebound with the perpetrator. Social isolation has been associated with increased risk of IPV in some contexts (e.g., in migrant women; Kim 2019 ; in rural areas; Lanier and Maume 2009 ), and potentially prevents the victim from seeking help from others (van Gelder et al. 2020 ). Indeed, isolating victims from their social support network is a common strategy employed by perpetrators to control their victims. Thus, increased contact with the perpetrator, coupled with reduced social contacts with others, are likely to put many already vulnerable victims into even more precarious situations.

Third, the services that might normally be available to IPV victims may simply not be there, or function at a reduced capacity during a pandemic. Health care providers and emergency personnel are often the first point of contact for IPV victims, and play a major role in screening for IPV, identifying it, and encouraging disclosure (Bradley et al. 2020 ). Because of limited access to health care during the pandemic, many incidences of IPV may not be identified. In addition, police intervention is often the first response to IPV (Cheng and Lo 2019 ). Due to social restrictions and police engagement in new roles such as coordination and enforcement of local lockdowns, victims and bystanders (e.g., neighbours) may be less likely to contact the police during incidence of physical violence. It is possible that the pandemic leaves many victims unnoticed, without the help of authorities and health care providers.

Fourth, the pandemic may be a tool for the abusers to exert their power further. Some of the well-recorded IPV tactics include coercive control, which has been defined as “a strategic course of oppressive conduct that is typically characterized by frequent, but low-level physical abuse and sexual coercion in combination with tactics to intimidate, degrade, isolate, and control victims” (Stark 2013 , p. 18). The abusers may use the social isolation measures during the pandemic as an excuse for further controlling and isolating the victims. Coercive control has been identified as one of the important predictors of femicide (Campbell et al. 2003 ), highlighting the concern about murder victims as “collateral damage” of the pandemic. The pandemic could even escalate the journey of the perpetrator from coercive control to murder (see Monckton Smith 2019 ).

The aim of the present study is to qualitatively understand the experiences of IPV victims during the pandemic. We are utilising online discussion forums, a data source that has become a popular tool in both qualitative (e.g., Newberry 2017 ) and quantitative (e.g., Lyons et al. 2018 ; Lyons et al. 2020 ) psychological research. Online communities can provide a constructive forum for advice, support, and social contact in those who experience IPV (Hurley et al. 2007 ; Lindgren 2014 ; Newberry 2017 ). IPV victimisation is often related to shame, self-blame, and social stigma (Eckstein 2016 ; Lim et al. 2015 ), which may make it harder in terms of seeking support face-to-face (Overstreet and Quinn 2013 ). The online environment facilitates interacting and sharing stories with others using an anonymous username, reducing stigma relating to disclosure and providing a degree of safeguarding. The personal stories of IPV victims will be important for understanding the complicated issues that the global health crisis may impose on vulnerable people.

Selection of Forum Posts

In this research, we utilised the highly popular social networking discussion forum platform, Reddit. This platform has more than 10,000 user-generated “subreddits”, online communities that are unified by common interests (Widman 2020 ). The veil of anonymity and shared experiences make it easier for the users to openly talk about stigmatising issues that may be more difficult to discuss face-to-face. Hence Reddit has been successfully used to research sensitive topics such as pro-eating disorders (Sowles et al. 2018 ), incel communities (Maxwell et al. 2020 ), and mental illness (De Choudhury and De 2014 ). Reddit has also been used by victims of IPV and sexual violence as a supportive environment in which experiences can be shared and acknowledged (O’Neill 2018 ; Schrading et al. 2015 ). Indeed, the use of these online communities may be empowering and reduce social isolation (van Uden-Kraan et al. 2009 ). Therefore, Reddit has the potential to provide an insight into user experiences in a manner unprompted by researcher priorities or assumptions.

For the present study, we searched Reddit for IPV related subreddits by using the search words “domestic violence, domestic abuse, intimate partner violence, abusive relationships, partner abuse”. We identified three relevant sites, each with a large number of users (at the point of data collection, 10,100, 12,300, and 27,100). We selected posts that were submitted between 1st March and 10th May 2020, a period in which a substantial proportion of the global population had experienced or were anticipating lockdown.

Upon entering each subreddit site, we searched for relevant posts using the words “COVID, corona, virus, and pandemic”. We went through the list of threads under each search word, selecting posts (and responses to the posts) that filled the inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria were the following: (i) the posts had to discuss PERSONAL experiences during the pandemic. Posts that were discussing the experiences of someone else, giving advice without sharing their experiences, or did not mention COVID-19 at all were excluded. (ii) the posts had to discuss experiences of IPV victimisation (not other types of domestic violence or perpetration of IPV), with the abuse present prior to the pandemic.

We recorded posts by the usernames, analysing each username as one unit. We also searched for other posts by the username by clicking their name. If the person had written about IPV experiences during COVID-19 in other subreddits, those posts were also collected. The username, link to the post, perpetrator-victim relationship (i.e., male-female, female-male, male-male, female-female), and country of origin of the posts (wherever this was possible) were recorded.

Ethical Issues

As the posts in the subreddits were publicly available, our Institutional Review Board for research involving human participants, did not require formal review and approval. However, when designing and conducting the study and reporting our findings we consulted relevant ethical guidelines, previously published discussion forum research, and available guides to discussion forum research (e.g., Smedley and Coulson 2021 ). In particular, we considered the public or private nature of the information shared, the potential for benefit or harm, and the feasibility of seeking informed consent when determining the appropriateness of the research (Eysenbach and Till 2001 ; Roberts 2015 ).

We analysed posts available to the general public without registration or log in and adopted a number of measures in accordance with professional body guidelines (e.g., British Psychological Society 2017 ) in order to protect the anonymity of the forum users. We are not revealing their online usernames, have slightly altered the wording of the quotes in this report, and include brief quotations rather than lengthy forum posts. To further address this issue, we entered each quote into both Google (the most widely used search engine) and Reddit (the discussion forum platform used to obtain posts), and this did not lead to the original posts. We are not reporting the name of the subreddits used in the study either. Altogether, we collected 50 posts written by victims of IPV on the forums identified as relevant for the topic. We finished data collection after all the relevant posts were found. Most (48) were female victims reporting abuse from a male perpetrator. Although in most cases, it was not possible to trace the country of origin, 22 posts were from the US, two from the UK, one from Canada, one from Australia, and one from Cambodia.

Data Analysis

Two researchers independently analysed the datafile using inductive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke 2006 ). This analytical method has been used previously in the context of discussion forum posts on IPV (e.g., Newberry 2017 ), and was deemed as the most appropriate for understanding personal stories within the context of the pandemic. The researchers read the forum posts several times, and established initial codes independent from each other, utilising separate word files as an audit trail. The researchers then discussed the codes, removed any duplicates, amalgamated similar codes, and investigated any discrepancies between the coders.

After agreement on the coding system, we then organised the codes into broader themes in order to establish a preliminary thematic framework. For example, the limited shelter access, contacting law enforcement, and disruption to counselling codes later contributed to the Service Disruption theme. This was done by carefully examining any similarities and differences between codes and critically appraising the relationships between the codes. The final themes were agreed by both researchers after checking analytical interpretations for any discrepancies and it was clear that data saturation had been reached after analysis of the 50 discussion forum posts. We applied Leininger’s ( 1994 ) six criteria (credibility, confirmability, meaning in context, recurrent patterning, saturation, and transferability) when assessing the trustworthiness of our findings. These criteria are specifically intended for use with qualitative data and are consistent with the assumptions and goals of the qualitative paradigm.

Credibility. The researchers discussed their interpretations of the findings extensively, acknowledging their potential biases, and trying to adopt the perspective of the informants. We recognise that credibility is somewhat limited by the lack of participant involvement in the interpretation of the findings. However, we note that the data were posts created by users, unprompted by researcher priorities or assumptions and therefore may have greater credibility than other approaches. Confirmability. At times, it would have been beneficial to obtain clarification for some of the posts, which was not possible due to the nature of the study. However, the discussion forum posts are thought to be true, honest reflection of personal experience. Meaning-in-context. We recognize that the interpretations of the data are compatible only within the specific context addressed (i.e., the COVID-19 pandemic.

Recurrent Patterning. The texts within the posts were often in similar sequences, telling similar kind of stories (e.g., pandemic stressors increasing abuse, with victims preparing to leave). We felt that the data did include recurring experiences across multiple posters. Saturation. Although other similar studies have used larger number of posts (e.g., O’Neill 2018 ), our data collection was limited by the number of available posts that fit the exclusion criteria. However, both researchers agreed that when reaching the 50 posts, data saturation was reached, and no new codes/themes were emerging at this point. Transferability. The themes can be partially transferred to reflect the experiences of people in other circumstances in the pandemic. However, it is important to note that the aim of our study is not to produce findings that may be generalized to other (i.e., non-pandemic) contexts, it is to understand the experiences of those affected by IPV during the pandemic in order to inform interventions and the guidance and support provided to IPV victims.

We identified a number of themes relating to experiences of IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic. Forum posts typically also contained non-COVID-19 information (e.g., describing the abuse, providing relationship history). These themes are not reported here if they did not directly relate to experiencing IPV in the context of the pandemic. However, it is worth noting that the posts described a deep history of IPV prior to the pandemic. Therefore, the posts relate to a continuation or escalation (none described a reduction) of abuse rather than abuse initiated after the start of the pandemic and findings cannot inform our understanding of the experiences of those who first became victims of IPV during the pandemic. The four themes extracted from the data were (i) Use of COVID-19 by the Abuser, (ii) Service Disruption, (iii) Preparation to Leave, and (iv) Factors Increasing Abuse or Distress.

Use of COVID-19 by the Abuser

Perpetrators frequently capitalized on the pandemic and incorporated it into the abuse. For example, “He’s using it as an excuse to try to throw me out of the house” (female victim, country not disclosed). Abusers also threatened victims or punished ‘unacceptable’ behaviour during the pandemic such as leaving the house during lockdown. As described on one forum post “She says she will “kill me” for putting people at risk” (male victim, U.S.A.). Similarly, another woman stated “He yelled at me after I went for a walk, he says I am selfish and “retarded”, he’s doing it to try to control me” (female victim, country not disclosed). In some instances, perpetrators made false claims to control a partner’s movements, such as “He called the airline and said I had tested positive so that they wouldn’t let me on the plane” (female victim, U.S.A.). Some posts also described perpetrators threatening to purchase a weapon, both in countries where gun ownership is legal and illegal. Potential social unrest during the pandemic was often provided as the reason for acquiring the weapon. For example, “He says he is going to buy a gun as people go crazy during the pandemic and might rob him…he is using it as an excuse to get a gun” (female victim, Australia).

Service Disruption

COVID-19 caused considerable disruption to available services, including specialist domestic violence services (such as shelters) and associated support (e.g., counselling). Forum posts often commented that “The DV shelters are all full!” (female victim, country not disclosed), “Shelters are at capacity…everything is in lockdown because of COVID” (female victim, U.K.), and “The shelter won’t take or release people during COVID” (female victim, U.S.A). Support services often became unavailable, exacerbating the impact of the IPV. For example, “He was seeing a counsellor to help him with his anger but he had to stop due to COVID-19” (female victim, country not disclosed) and “I normally see an onsite therapist at work without him knowing but I can’t do that now” (female victim, country not disclosed). Disruption to legal proceedings often increased anxiety and the risks posed to IPV victims. For example, “My abuser is going to be released from jail because prisoners and guards have tested positive… I’m shocked and very scared… I worry for my safety and the safety of my children” (female victim, U.K.). Similarly, court cases were delayed “The court case is pending but I don’t know when it will happen now because of COVID” (female victim, U.S.A.). Regular services that support victims leaving their abuser (e.g., transportation) have also been affected. As stated by one woman, “There are hardly any flights and then I would have to quarantine for two weeks” (female victim, Cambodia).

Preparation to Leave

Many victims reported that they were ready to leave their abusive partner and that the pandemic had interrupted their attempt to leave. For example, “I should have moved by now…The pandemic put everything on hold” (female victim, Australia) and “I was hoping to leave before the pandemic hit, now I am stuck here” (female victim, U.S.A.). Other individuals were using the lockdown to prepare to leave. For example, “I have been contacting houses to move into” (female victim, Australia) and “I’m using time to make an escape plan, I’m trying to find a way out” (female victim, U.S.A.). One victim explained “I’m using quarantine to make a plan to get out of this situation. I’ve made a secret email and packed a bag” (female victim, U.S.A.). Financial resources were particularly important. For example, victims reported “I am waiting for the payment, so I can grab the kids and leave” (female victim, U.S.A.). Highlighting the importance of the approach adopted by each country one victim stated “I need money to escape…In Australia we receive a payment due to COVID…I’m using this to escape him…As soon as I get a payment I’m using it for a deposit and leaving” (female victim, Australia).

Factors Increasing Abuse or Distress

A range of factors increased the prevalence and intensity of the abuse or the victim’s IPV related distress. These could be identified as financial stress, increased time together, increased alcohol/drug use, pre-existing health issues of the victim or the abuser, and the presence of vulnerable others (e.g., children or pets). For example, alcohol use featured in many posts, “It gets worse when he drinks and he does this a lot” (female victim, Canada). Those living with their abuser (either permanently or because they self-isolated together on a temporary basis) were particularly distressed. In some cases, there was evidence of coercive control by the abuser, for example, “I can’t cope living with a monster anymore, everything is controlled by him. I can’t be confined to a house all day with my abuser” (female victim, Australia). The increased time spent together because of quarantine and social isolation rules seemed to be particularly challenging for many, resulting in the victim feeling like a prisoner, “I’m stuck with him in a house now, can’t do anything, and feeling paralyzed. In the past few weeks I have had suicidal thoughts every day” (female victim, country not disclosed). Similarly, another stated “Quarantine sucks, no escape from each other when we are upset. He gaslights me all the time… I don’t know where to go from here” (female victim, country not disclosed). The presence of vulnerable others also added to the victims’ distress. Many of the victims were quarantined in the house with children or pets. For example, one female victim voiced her concerns over harming her child saying “Being stuck with him is so hard. He hasn’t hurt our child before but I am afraid it might happen soon. I’ve been trying to keep my son out of harms way” (female victim, U.S.A.).

They often displayed desperation “I’m going to end up killing myself during isolation…I can’t deal with it anymore. How do I avoid him in the same house” (female victim, Australia). Financial issues (including job loss) were also important. These included the perpetrator having fewer financial resources and becoming more stressed, unpredictable, and abusive and the victim having fewer financial resources and therefore becoming more financially dependent on the abusive partner. For example, “I can’t afford to move out because there is less work” (female victim, Cambodia), “He has been out of work and his behaviour has escalated” (female victim, U.S.A.), and “I lost my job due to COVID. I’m living off his income and unemployment” (female victim, country not disclosed). Distress was exacerbated by isolation from the wider social support network though people were often worried that visiting family or friends could increase the risk of COVID-19. For example, “My mom and dad are at risk and live with someone with cancer. I wouldn’t want to risk their lives” (female victim, U.S.A).

The current study investigated victims’ experiences of IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic. The qualitative data gathered from Reddit discussion forums indicate that in relationships where there is a history of abuse, IPV has often been exacerbated by stressors related to the pandemic. No victims reported that the frequency or severity of abuse had declined during this period. Many of the concerns identified by the victims in our sample related to the issues that Peterman et al. ( 2020 ) raised in relation to IPV during the pandemic (e.g., economic uncertainty, quarantine and social isolation, reduced support service availability, inability to escape the abuse, and virus-specific sources of violence). Below, we will discuss each of the four themes extracted from our data.

Many of the victims described how perpetrators were using the pandemic as an excuse for escalating abuse, especially increased surveillance of their partner and coercive control. Lockdown and quarantine rules typically resulted in abusers spending more time with the victim and increased opportunities for monitoring and control of their behaviour. For example, where lockdown required victims to work from home, abusers were able to observe interactions with colleagues. The increase in coercive control is particularly worrying as this has been identified as one of the risk factors for serious abuse, including femicide (Myhill and Hohl 2019 ). It is, therefore, important that victims of IPV are supported to recognise and respond to different forms of partner violence and indicators that the abuse is escalating. Abusers also used the pandemic to restrict their partner’s movements and contact with the outside world. Social isolation escalates the risk of violence and contributes to victim distress (Jose and Novaco 2016 ). Where restricted travel and social distancing regulations are introduced, additional measures are required to reduce isolation in order to lower the risk of family violence (Campbell 2020 ). Further, it is essential that local and national policy restricting travel or introducing social distancing also communicates exceptions to these rules, such as when a victim moves from one household to another to protect their safety.

Some of the victims were concerned about their abuser’s intentions to purchase a weapon, with abusers typically adopting the need for self-protection during the pandemic as an excuse for gun ownership. Indeed, gun ownership has increased in the U.S.A. since the start of the pandemic and gun related injuries or fatalities have increased in many regions (Hatchimonji et al. 2020 ; Sutherland et al. 2020 ). The ownership of a weapon has been identified as an important fatality risk indicator by female victims (Johnson et al. 2020 ), suggesting that many abuse victims are, for good reasons, fearing for their lives during the pandemic. Of course, the presence of a weapon not only impacts on the likelihood of homicide; it may also impact on the abuser’s ability to control their victim, victim distress and anxiety, and suicide rates (Lynch and Logan 2018 ; Mannix et al. 2020 ; Sorenson and Schut 2018 ). Therefore, law enforcement and those regulating weapon ownership must acknowledge and address the increased risk to IPV victims during times of crisis.

This theme centred on the disruption of services available to victims (e.g., shelters) and perpetrators (e.g., counselling). Victims who seek but do not receive external support are less likely to leave their abusive partner (Koepsell et al. 2006 ). Hence, pandemic-related disruptions to support services place the victims of IPV in a precarious position, reducing practical support and preventing the escape to shelters and/or family that live further away. Those supporting victims of IPV must ensure that support services are available remotely (e.g., online) and consider how this support can be safely accessed when victims are in quarantine with their abuser. Additional facilities (e.g., shelter accommodation) are also required to address demand during the COVID-19 pandemic (Ndedi 2020 ) and public pressure may be required to ensure that these facilities are available. Furthermore, termination of help (e.g., counselling) to the abuser may decrease their ability to cope with the pandemic-related stressors, leading to escalated IPV. Remote counselling available to perpetrators and victims would, therefore, also be beneficial (Mazza et al. 2020 ).

Services that are not primarily targeted at IPV victims or perpetrators have also been disrupted. For example, during lockdown, victims may have reduced contact with health care providers or law enforcement who often encourage victims to leave abusive partners (Morse et al. 2012 ) and it is important that opportunities to report partner abuse or seek advice are maintained. Alternative forms of reporting may be introduced, but the availability of these must be widely disseminated to victims through large-scale national campaigns. In the present study, victims also reported disruption to court activities and early release of prisoners due to COVID-19; this is particularly concerning as delayed prosecution and early release increase the risk of abuse from the violent partner. Further, in addition to their primary safeguarding function, court offers important opportunities to support the well-being of partner violence victims (Cerulli et al. 2011 ). It is, therefore, essential that disruption to judicial activities resulting in delayed prosecution, early offender release, or reduced victim support, is combined with measures that address the impact of this disruption on victims (i.e., increased risk and distress).

For some victims, COVID-19 (and associated lockdown measures) interrupted plans to leave their abusive partner. Others reflected on their relationship during this time (or perhaps were aware of the escalation of abuse during the pandemic) and decided to leave when possible. It is difficult to determine why some victims had reached the decision to leave prior to the pandemic and others were prompted to leave by COVID-19 and further research in this area is required. It is likely, however, that a range of individual, relational, and situational factors impacted on this process. Victims who used the pandemic period to prepare for their escape, engaged in a range of preparatory activities such as creating secure emails, organising belongings, and locating alternative accommodation. These activities encouraged hope that it would be possible to safely leave the relationship and optimism about the future. Indeed, victims are more likely to terminate an abusive relationship if they believe they have a degree of control over this (Byrne and Arias 2004 ).

These plans are particularly important where access to formal (e.g., shelters) and informal (e.g., family) support is limited. There is, however, little information available to victims relating to how to prepare to safely leave an abusive relationship (e.g., locating proof of identity which may be required to obtain benefits) and additional guidance should be provided. Online resources (e.g., those available on discussion forums used by IPV victims) may be particularly beneficial. Of course, for many victims, lockdown with their abuser makes such planning difficult or increases the risk of detection and victim safeguarding remains the priority. It is important to note that those who had access to increased funds as a consequence of the pandemic (i.e., Government funding) were particularly positive about their ability to leave the abusive partner. It is, therefore, essential that IPV victims are provided with the resources (including financial resources) necessary to leave the abusive partner. Greater public recognition of this issue may be required to ensure that funding is in place to support victims.

Forum posts identified a range of factors that increased the intensity and prevalence of the IPV or exacerbated victim distress. In particular, financial pressures that increased perpetrator stress (and abusive or controlling behaviour) or victim dependence on the abusive partner were commonly discussed. The COVID-19 pandemic has had an extensive impact on the global economy (e.g., wide-scale redundancy) with many countries likely to enter recession (Coibion et al. 2020 ; Fernandes 2020 ). It is, therefore, important to recognise the consequences of the pandemic related economic crisis for wider societal issues. Of course, the impact of financial resource availability extends beyond the incidence of IPV and the victim’s ability to leave. For example, for those who have left their abusive partner, the availability of resources also has an important impact on subsequent health (Ford-Gilboe et al. 2009 ) suggesting longer-term consequences of these economic issues.

Other issues believed to increase the abuse or victim distress included the use of alcohol and drugs. The relationship between substance use and IPV is well-established (e.g., Caetano et al. 2001 ) and there are concerns that alcohol use has increased during lockdown (Clay and Parker 2020 ). Hence, public health measures to reduce substance use as a coping mechanism during pandemics or other national crises may help to lower IPV levels. Victims isolating with their abuser are at particular risk during the pandemic (Klostermann et al. 2020 ) and those with vulnerable others present in the household may be particularly concerned. Indeed, the presence of vulnerable others such as children or pets appears to influence both the incidence of abuse and the decision to enter a shelter (Hardesty et al. 2013 ). During the pandemic, children are at increased risk of exposure to violence or becoming victims themselves (Humphreys et al. 2020 ). It is important therefore, to ensure children exposed to violence during COVID-19 are supported (Ragavan et al. 2020 ). This may incorporate a range of measures including access to counselling and school based support.

Limitations

The present study investigated the experiences of IPV victims during lockdown and the COVID-19 pandemic, using online forum discussion posts. Though these provide an important insight into those issues of most concern to victims, unprompted by the priorities or assumptions of the researchers, it is not possible to determine whether these posts are representative of IPV victim experiences. For example, Reddit users tend to be younger and more educated than the general population (Pew Research Center 2016 ). In addition, though we made note of the country of origin where listed, we have little demographic detail for the individuals posting online. In both research and practice there has little consideration of IPV experiences in racial and ethnic minorities (Lee et al. 2002 ). Therefore, whilst it is particularly important to investigate the experiences from those in minority groups as ethnicity may be related to COVID-19 incidence or outcomes (Pareek et al. 2020 ), our research cannot inform this issue. Finally, the present study did not specifically target the female victims of male perpetrators. The majority of the posts selected were, however, written by the female victims of male perpetrators. It is important to recognise that those in same-sex relationships are also at risk of IPV (Messinger 2011 ) as are men in relationships with female perpetrators (Carmo et al. 2011 ). Future studies should specifically consider these groups.

Impact and Conclusions

The present research represents one of the first studies to gain knowledge of the dynamics that influence the increased incidence of partner violence during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. We investigated experiences of IPV via a qualitative thematic analysis of Reddit discussion forum posts, an approach which provides an insight into user experiences unprompted by researcher priorities or assumptions. Four themes emerged. These were Use of COVID-19 by the Abuser, Service Disruption, Preparation to Leave, and Factors Increasing Abuse or Distress. These findings inform interventions and the guidance provided to those affected by IPV. In particular, we advocate supporting victims to recognise and respond to different forms of partner violence and indicators that the abuse is escalating, and ensuring that victims are aware of exceptions to social distancing policy that allows movement to protect personal safety. Large scale national campaigns to disseminate this information and information advising victims how to safely leave an abusive relationship are recommended. It is also essential that law enforcement are aware of the increased risk to IPV victims during times of crisis and that specialist services (e.g., counselling and shelters) are protected.

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Lyons, M., Brewer, G. Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence during Lockdown and the COVID-19 Pandemic. J Fam Viol 37 , 969–977 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00260-x

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Accepted : 17 February 2021

Published : 26 February 2021

Issue Date : August 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00260-x

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