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Early Italy

Historical sources on early rome.

• Rome’s foundation myth
• The regal period, 753–509 bc
• Foundation of the republic
• The struggle of the orders
• The consulship
• The dictatorship
• The popular assemblies
• The plebeian tribunate
• The Law of the Twelve Tables
• Military tribunes with consular power
• Social and economic changes
• The Latin League
• The Samnite Wars
• The Pyrrhic War, 280–275 bc
• First Punic War (264–241 bc )
• Second Punic War (218–201 bc )
• Roman expansion in the eastern Mediterranean
• Roman expansion in the western Mediterranean
• Explanations of Roman expansion
• Beginnings of provincial administration
• Citizenship and politics in the middle republic
• Culture and religion
• Demographic and economic developments
• Social changes
• Rome and Italy
• Changes in provincial administration
• Social and economic ills
• The program and career of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
• The program and career of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
• War against Jugurtha
• The career of Gaius Marius
• Events in Asia
• Developments in Italy
• Civil war and the rule of Lucius Sulla
• The early career of Pompey
• Pompey and Crassus
• Political suspicion and violence
• Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus
• Political maneuvers
• The dictatorship and assassination of Caesar
• The Triumvirate and Octavian’s achievement of sole power
• Grammar and rhetoric
• Law and history
• Philosophy and poetry
• The establishment of the principate under Augustus
• The Roman Senate and the urban magistracies
• The equestrian order
• Administration of Rome and Italy
• Administration of the provinces
• Emperor worship
• Foreign policy
• Economic life
• Augustan art and literature
• Appraisal of Augustus
• The succession
• The year of the four emperors
• The Flavian emperors
• The early Antonine emperors: Nerva and Trajan
• Hadrian and the other Antonine emperors
• Trend to absolute monarchy
• Political life
• Developments in the provinces
• Urban centres
• Latinization
• Limits of unification
• Cult of the emperors
• The economic factor
• Cultural life
• Septimius Severus
• Elagabalus and Severus Alexander
• The rise of Christianity
• Cultural life from the Antonines to Constantine
• Succession of emperors and usurpers
• The barbarian invasions
• Difficulties in the East
• Economic and social crisis
• The Illyrian emperors
• Struggle for power
• The reign of Constantine
• The rule of Constantine’s sons
• The reign of Julian
• The reign of Valentinian and Valens
• The reign of Gratian and Theodosius I
• Social and economic conditions
• The remnants of pagan culture
• The Christian church
• Invasions in the early 5th century
• The beginning of Germanic hegemony in the West
• Barbarian kingdoms
• Analysis of the decline and fall

Who was the first king of ancient Rome?

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According to tradition, Romulus was Rome’s first king. His legendary reign was filled with deeds expected of an ancient city founder and the son of a war god. Thus he was described as having established Rome’s early political, military, and social institutions and as having waged war against neighboring states. Romulus was also thought to have shared his royal power for a time with a Sabine named Titus Tatius . The name may be that of an authentic ruler of early Rome, perhaps Rome's first real king; nothing, however, was known about him in later centuries, and his reign was therefore lumped together with that of Romulus.

The two main social orders in ancient Rome were the patricians and the plebeians. The two were in a political struggle lasting for more than 200 years. In the beginning, the patricians were supposed to have enjoyed a monopoly of power, while the plebeians began with nothing except the right to vote in the assemblies. During the course of the struggle the plebeians, however, were believed to have won concessions gradually from the patricians through political agitation and confrontation, and they eventually attained legal equality with them.

The two assemblies of the Roman Republic were the centuriate assembly (comitia centuriata), which was military in nature and composed of voting groups called centuries (military units), and the tribal assembly (comitia tributa), a nonmilitary civilian assembly. The tribal assembly met within the city and was more democratic in its organization.

The series of wars between Rome and Carthage are known as the Punic Wars . The First Punic War ( First Carthaginian War) was fought from 264–241 BCE, the Second Punic War (Second Carthaginian War) was fought from 218–201 BCE, while the Third Punic War (Third Carthaginian War) was fought from 149–146 BCE.

Augustus , also called Augustus Caesar, was the first Roman emperor following the republic, which had been finally destroyed by the dictatorship of Julius Caesar. His autocratic regime is known as the principate because he was the princeps, the first citizen, at the head of that array of outwardly revived republican institutions that alone made his autocracy palatable. With unlimited patience, skill, and efficiency, he overhauled every aspect of Roman life and brought durable peace and prosperity to the Greco-Roman world.

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ancient Rome , the state centred on the city of Rome . This article discusses the period from the founding of the city and the regal period, which began in 753 bc , through the events leading to the founding of the republic in 509 bc , the establishment of the empire in 27 bc , and the final eclipse of the Empire of the West in the 5th century ad . For later events of the Empire of the East, see Byzantine Empire .

Rome must be considered one of the most successful imperial powers in history. In the course of centuries Rome grew from a small town on the Tiber River in central Italy into a vast empire that ultimately embraced England, all of continental Europe west of the Rhine and south of the Danube, most of Asia west of the Euphrates, northern Africa, and the islands of the Mediterranean. Unlike the Greeks , who excelled in intellectual and artistic endeavours, the Romans achieved greatness in their military, political, and social institutions. Roman society, during the republic, was governed by a strong military ethos . While this helps to explain the incessant warfare, it does not account for Rome’s success as an imperial power. Unlike Greek city-states, which excluded foreigners and subjected peoples from political participation, Rome from its beginning incorporated conquered peoples into its social and political system . Allies and subjects who adopted Roman ways were eventually granted Roman citizenship. During the principate (see below), the seats in the Senate and even the imperial throne were occupied by persons from the Mediterranean realm outside Italy. The lasting effects of Roman rule in Europe can be seen in the geographic distribution of the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian), all of which evolved from Latin, the language of the Romans. The Western alphabet of 26 letters and the calendar of 12 months and 365.25 days are only two simple examples of the cultural legacy which Rome has bequeathed Western civilization.

The larger historical period spanning from the output of ancient Greek author Homer in the 8th century bce to the decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century ce is known as " Classical antiquity ," encompassing Greco-Roman culture , playing a major role in the Mediterranean sphere of influence and in the creation of Western civilization, and shaping areas as diverse as law , architecture , art , language , poetry , rhetoric , politics, and philosophy .

Rome from its origins to 264 bc

Early rome to 509 bc.

When Italy emerged into the light of history about 700 bc , it was already inhabited by various peoples of different cultures and languages. Most natives of the country lived in villages or small towns, supported themselves by agriculture or animal husbandry (Italia means “Calf Land”), and spoke an Italic dialect belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. Oscan and Umbrian were closely related Italic dialects spoken by the inhabitants of the Apennines. The other two Italic dialects, Latin and Venetic, were likewise closely related to each other and were spoken, respectively, by the Latins of Latium (a plain of west-central Italy) and the people of northeastern Italy (near modern Venice). Iapyges and Messapii inhabited the southeastern coast. Their language resembled the speech of the Illyrians on the other side of the Adriatic. During the 5th century bc the Po valley of northern Italy (Cisalpine Gaul) was occupied by Gallic tribes who spoke Celtic and who had migrated across the Alps from continental Europe. The Etruscans were the first highly civilized people of Italy and were the only inhabitants who did not speak an Indo-European language. By 700 bc several Greek colonies were established along the southern coast. Both Greeks and Phoenicians were actively engaged in trade with the Italian natives.

Modern historical analysis is making rapid progress in showing how Rome’s early development occurred in a multicultural environment and was particularly influenced by the higher civilizations of the Etruscans to the north and the Greeks to the south. Roman religion was indebted to the beliefs and practices of the Etruscans. The Romans borrowed and adapted the alphabet from the Etruscans, who in turn had borrowed and adapted it from the Greek colonies of Italy. Senior officials of the Roman Republic derived their insignia from the Etruscans: curule chair , purple-bordered toga ( toga praetexta ), and bundle of rods ( fasces ). Gladiatorial combats and the military triumph (see below) were other customs adopted from the Etruscans. Rome lay 12 miles inland from the sea on the Tiber River, the border between Latium and Etruria. Because the site commanded a convenient river crossing and lay on a land route from the Apennines to the sea, it formed the meeting point of three distinct peoples: Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines . Though Latin in speech and culture, the Roman population must have been somewhat diverse from earliest times, a circumstance that may help to account for the openness of Roman society in historical times.

The regal period (753–509 bc ) and the early republic (509–280 bc ) are the most poorly documented periods of Roman history because historical accounts of Rome were not written until much later. Greek historians did not take serious notice of Rome until the Pyrrhic War (280–275 bc ), when Rome was completing its conquest of Italy and was fighting against the Greek city of Tarentum in southern Italy. Rome’s first native historian, a senator named Quintus Fabius Pictor , lived and wrote even later, during the Second Punic War (218–201 bc ). Thus historical writing at Rome did not begin until after Rome had completed its conquest of Italy, had emerged as a major power of the ancient world, and was engaged in a titanic struggle with Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean. Fabius Pictor’s history, which began with the city’s mythical Trojan ancestry and narrated events up to his own day, established the form of subsequent histories of Rome. During the last 200 years bc , 16 other Romans wrote similarly inclusive narratives. All these works are now collectively termed “the Roman annalistic tradition” because many of them attempted to give a year-by-year (or annalistic) account of Roman affairs for the republic.

Although none of these histories are fully preserved, the first 10 books of Livy , one of Rome’s greatest historians, are extant and cover Roman affairs from earliest times to the year 293 bc (extant are also Books 21 to 45 treating the events from 218 bc to 167 bc ). Since Livy wrote during the reign of the emperor Augustus (27 bc – ad 14), he was separated by 200 years from Fabius Pictor, who, in turn, had lived long after many of the events his history described. Thus, in writing about early Rome, ancient historians were confronted with great difficulties in ascertaining the truth. They possessed a list of annual magistrates from the beginning of the republic onward (the consular fasti ), which formed the chronological framework of their accounts. Religious records and the texts of some laws and treaties provided a bare outline of major events. Ancient historians fleshed out this meagre factual material with both native and Greek folklore. Consequently, over time, historical facts about early Rome often suffered from patriotic or face-saving reinterpretations involving exaggeration of the truth, suppression of embarrassing facts, and invention.

The evidence for the annalistic tradition shows that the Roman histories written during the 2nd century bc were relatively brief resumes of facts and stories. Yet in the course of the 1st century bc Roman writers were increasingly influenced by Greek rhetorical training, with the result that their histories became greatly expanded in length; included in them were fictitious speeches and lengthy narratives of spurious battles and political confrontations, which, however, reflect the military and political conditions and controversies of the late republic rather than accurately portraying the events of early Rome. Livy’s history of early Rome, for example, is a blend of some facts and much fiction. Since it is often difficult to separate fact from fiction in his works and doing so involves personal judgment, modern scholars have disagreed about many aspects of early Roman history and will continue to do so.

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Ancient Rome

By: History.com Editors

Updated: September 22, 2023 | Original: October 14, 2009

Beginning in the eighth century B.C., Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy’s Tiber River into an empire that at its peak encompassed most of continental Europe, Britain, much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. Among the many legacies of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian) derived from Latin, the modern Western alphabet and calendar and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion.

After 450 years as a republic, Rome became an empire in the wake of Julius Caesar’s rise and fall in the first century B.C. The long and triumphant reign of its first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace and prosperity; by contrast, the Roman Empire’s decline and fall by the fifth century A.D. was one of the most dramatic implosions in the history of human civilization.

Origins of Rome

As legend has it, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars, the god of war. Left to drown in a basket on the Tiber by a king of nearby Alba Longa and rescued by a she-wolf, the twins lived to defeat that king and found their own city on the river’s banks in 753 B.C. After killing his brother, Romulus became the first king of Rome, which is named for him.

A line of Sabine, Latin and Etruscan (earlier Italian civilizations) kings followed in a non-hereditary succession. There are seven legendary kings of Rome: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the Elder), Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus, or Tarquin the Proud (534-510 B.C.). While they were referred to as “Rex,” or “King” in Latin, all the kings after Romulus were elected by the senate. 

Did you know? Four decades after Constantine made Christianity Rome's official religion, Emperor Julian—known as the Apostate—tried to revive the pagan cults and temples of the past, but the process was reversed after his death, and Julian was the last pagan emperor of Rome.

Rome’s era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C. with the overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, whom ancient historians portrayed as cruel and tyrannical, compared to his benevolent predecessors. A popular uprising was said to have arisen over the rape of a virtuous noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king’s son. Whatever the cause, Rome turned from a monarchy into a republic, a world derived from res publica , or “property of the people.”

Rome was built on seven hills, known as “the seven hills of Rome”—Esquiline Hill, Palatine Hill, Aventine Hill, Capitoline Hill, Quirinal Hill, Viminal Hill and Caelian Hill. 

The Early Republic

The power of the monarch passed to two annually elected magistrates called consuls. They also served as commanders in chief of the army. The magistrates, though elected by the people, were drawn largely from the Senate, which was dominated by the patricians, or the descendants of the original senators from the time of Romulus. Politics in the early republic was marked by the long struggle between patricians and plebeians (the common people), who eventually attained some political power through years of concessions from patricians, including their own political bodies, the tribunes, which could initiate or veto legislation.

In 450 B.C., the first Roman law code was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets–known as the Twelve Tables–and publicly displayed in the Roman Forum . These laws included issues of legal procedure, civil rights and property rights and provided the basis for all future Roman civil law. By around 300 B.C., real political power in Rome was centered in the Senate, which at the time included only members of patrician and wealthy plebeian families.

Military Expansion

During the early republic, the Roman state grew exponentially in both size and power. Though the Gauls sacked and burned Rome in 390 B.C., the Romans rebounded under the leadership of the military hero Camillus, eventually gaining control of the entire Italian peninsula by 264 B.C. Rome then fought a series of wars known as the Punic Wars with Carthage, a powerful city-state in northern Africa.

The first two Punic Wars ended with Rome in full control of Sicily, the western Mediterranean and much of Spain. In the Third Punic War (149–146 B.C.), the Romans captured and destroyed the city of Carthage and sold its surviving inhabitants into slavery, making a section of northern Africa a Roman province. At the same time, Rome also spread its influence east, defeating King Philip V of Macedonia in the Macedonian Wars and turning his kingdom into another Roman province.

Rome’s military conquests led directly to its cultural growth as a society, as the Romans benefited greatly from contact with such advanced cultures as the Greeks. The first Roman literature appeared around 240 B.C., with translations of Greek classics into Latin; Romans would eventually adopt much of Greek art, philosophy and religion.

Internal Struggles in the Late Republic

Rome’s complex political institutions began to crumble under the weight of the growing empire, ushering in an era of internal turmoil and violence. The gap between rich and poor widened as wealthy landowners drove small farmers from public land, while access to government was increasingly limited to the more privileged classes. Attempts to address these social problems, such as the reform movements of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (in 133 B.C. and 123-22 B.C., respectively) ended in the reformers’ deaths at the hands of their opponents.

Gaius Marius, a commoner whose military prowess elevated him to the position of consul (for the first of six terms) in 107 B.C., was the first of a series of warlords who would dominate Rome during the late republic. By 91 B.C., Marius was struggling against attacks by his opponents, including his fellow general Sulla, who emerged as military dictator around 82 B.C. After Sulla retired, one of his former supporters, Pompey, briefly served as consul before waging successful military campaigns against pirates in the Mediterranean and the forces of Mithridates in Asia. During this same period, Marcus Tullius Cicero , elected consul in 63 B.C., famously defeated the conspiracy of the patrician Cataline and won a reputation as one of Rome’s greatest orators.

Julius Caesar’s Rise

When the victorious Pompey returned to Rome, he formed an uneasy alliance known as the First Triumvirate with the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus (who suppressed a slave rebellion led by Spartacus in 71 B.C.) and another rising star in Roman politics: Gaius Julius Caesar . After earning military glory in Spain, Caesar returned to Rome to vie for the consulship in 59 B.C. From his alliance with Pompey and Crassus, Caesar received the governorship of three wealthy provinces in Gaul beginning in 58 B.C.; he then set about conquering the rest of the region for Rome.

After Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter) died in 54 B.C. and Crassus was killed in battle against Parthia (present-day Iran) the following year, the triumvirate was broken. With old-style Roman politics in disorder, Pompey stepped in as sole consul in 53 B.C. Caesar’s military glory in Gaul and his increasing wealth had eclipsed Pompey’s, and the latter teamed with his Senate allies to steadily undermine Caesar. In 49 B.C., Caesar and one of his legions crossed the Rubicon, a river on the border between Italy from Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar’s invasion of Italy ignited a civil war from which he emerged as dictator of Rome for life in 45 B.C.

From Caesar to Augustus

Less than a year later, Julius Caesar was murdered on the ides of March (March 15, 44 B.C.) by a group of his enemies (led by the republican nobles Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius). Consul Mark Antony and Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted heir, Octavian, joined forces to crush Brutus and Cassius and divided power in Rome with ex-consul Lepidus in what was known as the Second Triumvirate. With Octavian leading the western provinces, Antony the east, and Lepidus Africa, tensions developed by 36 B.C. and the triumvirate soon dissolved. In 31 B.C., Octavian triumped over the forces of Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (also rumored to be the onetime lover of Julius Caesar) in the Battle of Actium. In the wake of this devastating defeat, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

By 29 B.C., Octavian was the sole leader of Rome and all its provinces. To avoid meeting Caesar’s fate, he made sure to make his position as absolute ruler acceptable to the public by apparently restoring the political institutions of the Roman republic while in reality retaining all real power for himself. In 27 B.C., Octavian assumed the title of Augustus , becoming the first emperor of Rome.

Age of the Roman Emperors

Augustus’ rule restored morale in Rome after a century of discord and corruption and ushered in the famous pax Romana –two full centuries of peace and prosperity. He instituted various social reforms, won numerous military victories and allowed Roman literature, art, architecture and religion to flourish. Augustus ruled for 56 years, supported by his great army and by a growing cult of devotion to the emperor. When he died, the Senate elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a long-running tradition of deification for popular emperors.

Augustus’ dynasty included the unpopular Tiberius (A.D. 14-37), the bloodthirsty and unstable Caligula (37-41) and Claudius (41-54), who was best remembered for his army’s conquest of Britain. The line ended with Nero (54-68), whose excesses drained the Roman treasury and led to his downfall and eventual suicide.

Four emperors took the throne in the tumultuous year after Nero’s death; the fourth, Vespasian (69-79), and his successors, Titus and Domitian, were known as the Flavians; they attempted to temper the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. Titus (79-81) earned his people’s devotion with his handling of recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii .

The reign of Nerva (96-98), who was selected by the Senate to succeed Domitian, began another golden age in Roman history, during which four emperors–Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius–took the throne peacefully, succeeding one another by adoption, as opposed to hereditary succession. Trajan (98-117) expanded Rome’s borders to the greatest extent in history with victories over the kingdoms of Dacia (now northwestern Romania) and Parthia. His successor Hadrian (117-138) solidified the empire’s frontiers (famously building Hadrian's Wall in present-day England) and continued his predecessor’s work of establishing internal stability and instituting administrative reforms.

Under Antoninus Pius (138-161), Rome continued in peace and prosperity, but the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180) was dominated by conflict, including war against Parthia and Armenia and the invasion of Germanic tribes from the north. When Marcus fell ill and died near the battlefield at Vindobona (Vienna), he broke with the tradition of non-hereditary succession and named his 19-year-old son Commodus as his successor.

What Role Did Women Play in Ancient Rome?

Their lives and value were defined almost solely in relation to men: their fathers and husbands. But some women found ways to claim their own power.

Chariot Racing: Ancient Rome’s Most Popular, Most Dangerous Sport

Chariot racing in ancient Rome showcased local teams, speed, violence and star athletes.

Coroner’s Report: Pompeii

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. obliterated the Roman city of Pompeii, burying it under tons of volcanic ash. While many of its resident fled to safety, what happened to those who dared to stay behind?

Decline and Disintegration

The decadence and incompetence of Commodus (180-192) brought the golden age of the Roman emperors to a disappointing end. His death at the hands of his own ministers sparked another period of civil war , from which Lucius Septimius Severus (193-211) emerged victorious. During the third century Rome suffered from a cycle of near-constant conflict. A total of 22 emperors took the throne, many of them meeting violent ends at the hands of the same soldiers who had propelled them to power. Meanwhile, threats from outside plagued the empire and depleted its riches, including continuing aggression from Germans and Parthians and raids by the Goths over the Aegean Sea.

The reign of Diocletian (284-305) temporarily restored peace and prosperity in Rome, but at a high cost to the unity of the empire. Diocletian divided power into the so-called tetrarchy (rule of four), sharing his title of Augustus (emperor) with Maximian. A pair of generals, Galerius and Constantius, were appointed as the assistants and chosen successors of Diocletian and Maximian; Diocletian and Galerius ruled the eastern Roman Empire, while Maximian and Constantius took power in the west.

The stability of this system suffered greatly after Diocletian and Maximian retired from office. Constantine (the son of Constantius) emerged from the ensuing power struggles as sole emperor of a reunified Rome in 324. He moved the Roman capital to the Greek city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople . At the Council of Nicaea in 325, Constantine made Christianity (once an obscure Jewish sect) Rome’s official religion.

Roman unity under Constantine proved illusory, and 30 years after his death the eastern and western empires were again divided. Despite its continuing battle against Persian forces, the eastern Roman Empire–later known as the Byzantine Empire –would remain largely intact for centuries to come. An entirely different story played out in the west, where the empire was wracked by internal conflict as well as threats from abroad–particularly from the Germanic tribes now established within the empire’s frontiers like the Vandals (their sack of Rome originated the phrase “vandalism”)–and was steadily losing money due to constant warfare.

Rome eventually collapsed under the weight of its own bloated empire, losing its provinces one by one: Britain around 410; Spain and northern Africa by 430. Attila and his brutal Huns invaded Gaul and Italy around 450, further shaking the foundations of the empire. In September 476, a Germanic prince named Odovacar won control of the Roman army in Italy. After deposing the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, Odovacar’s troops proclaimed him king of Italy, bringing an ignoble end to the long, tumultuous history of ancient Rome. The fall of the Roman Empire was complete.

Steps Leading to the Fall of Rome

• A.D. 285 First split
• A.D. 378 Battle of Adrianople
• A.D. 395 Final split
• A.D. 410 Visigoths sack Rome
• A.D. 439 Vandals capture Carthage
• A.D. 455 Vandals sack Rome
• A.D. 476 Western Roman Emperor deposed

Between 235 and 284, more than 20 Roman emperors take the throne in a chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century . This period ends when Diocletian becomes emperor and divides the Roman Empire into eastern and western regions, each ruled by its own emperor. This divided rule lasts until 324 when Constantine the Great reunifies Rome. More

The Roman military suffers one of its worst defeats at the Battle of Adrianople . Led by Eastern Emperor Valens, Rome loses an estimated 10,000 troops while fighting against the Visigoths and other Germanic peoples. Valens dies in battle, and the defeat in the east paves the way for attacks in the west. More

After Valens’ death in the Battle of Adrianople, Theodosius I becomes the new eastern emperor. In 394, he defeats Eugenius, the proclaimed western emperor. Theodosius executes Eugenius and briefly reunifies the empire under his rule. However, his death in 395 divides the empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius.

In 410, Visigoths successfully enter and sack the city of Rome . According to legend, this attack marks the first time an outside force has sacked Rome since 387 B.C., nearly 800 years before. More

Three decades after the Visigoths sack Rome, a different group of Germanic people called the Vandals capture Carthage, one of the largest cities in the Western Roman Empire. After capturing the ancient city, the Vandals declare it their new capital. This marks another significant victory for Germanic peoples against the Western Roman Empire. More

During the early 450s, the Western Roman Empire successfully fights off attempts by Attila the Hun and his forces to invade Roman territory. However, in 455 the Vandals invade and sack the city of Rome. This attack eventually helps turn the Vandals’ name into another word for people who destroy property. More

In 476, a Germanic soldier named Odoacer deposes the last western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus , and proclaims himself king of Italy. This marks the traditional end of the Western Roman Empire; but not the end of the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire , which flourishes for another millennium.

Roman Architecture

Roman architecture and engineering innovations have had a lasting impact on the modern world. Roman aqueducts, first developed in 312 B.C., enabled the rise of cities by transporting water to urban areas, improving public health and sanitation. Some Roman aqueducts transported water up to 60 miles from its source and the Fountain of Trevi in Rome still relies on an updated version of an original Roman aqueduct.

Roman cement and concrete are part of the reason ancient buildings like the Colosseum and Roman Forum are still standing strong today. Roman arches, or segmented arches, improved upon earlier arches to build strong bridges and buildings, evenly distributing weight throughout the structure.

Roman roads, the most advanced roads in the ancient world, enabled the Roman Empire—which was over 1.7 million square miles at the pinnacle of its power—to stay connected. They included such modern-seeming innovations as mile markers and drainage. Over 50,000 miles of road were built by 200 B.C. and several are still in use today.

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Rome PowerPoint with Video Clips + Presenter Notes (Ancient Rome)

Subject: History

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22 February 2018

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Ancient Rome

Find out why this ancient civilization is still important more than 2,000 years after its fall. 

Tens of thousands of Romans take their seats in an enormous stadium made of stone and concrete. It’s the year 80, and these people are entering the newly built Colosseum for the first time. Men wearing togas and women in long dresses called stolas will spend the next hundred days watching gladiator games and wild animal fights to celebrate the opening of this amphitheater.

These ancient people were living in the center of a vast empire that spanned across Europe , northern Africa , and parts of the Middle East. Lasting over a thousand years, the ancient Roman civilization contributed to modern languages, government, architecture, and more.

History of ancient Rome

Around the ninth or tenth century B.C., Rome was just a small town on the Tiber River in what’s now central Italy . (One myth says that the town was founded by two brothers—Romulus and Remus—who were raised by a wolf.) For about 500 years, the area was ruled by a series of kings as it grew in strength and power.

But around the year 509 B.C., the last king was overthrown, and Rome became a republic. That meant that some citizens could vote for their leaders and other important matters. Only male Roman citizens could cast votes; women and enslaved people—often brought back as prisoners from military battles—could not.

Elected officials included two consuls who acted sort of like today’s U.S. presidents and kept each other from taking too much power. Both consuls worked with senators, who advised the consuls and helped create laws. Senators were appointed by other officials and could hold their positions for life.

The Roman army fought many wars during this period, first conquering all of what’s now Italy. In 146 B.C., they destroyed the city of Carthage (in modern-day Tunisia, in northern Africa), which was Rome’s greatest rival for trade in the western Mediterranean Sea. Next they conquered Greece.

For 500 years, the republic system mostly worked. But then a series of civil wars divided the people. In 59 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar, a politician and military general, used the chaos to take power. Serving as consul, Caesar made new laws that benefitted his troops and other regular citizens. Then he conquered what’s now France and invaded Britain .

Even though his troops and many Roman citizens supported him, the Senate worried he was too powerful and wanted him gone. Knowing this, Caesar marched his loyal army into Rome. It was an illegal act that started a civil war, which Caesar would eventually win.

At first, he was named dictator for 10 years. (Before that, a dictator served during times of emergencies for only six months.) He canceled people’s debts and granted Roman citizenship to people outside of Italy so they could vote. Caesar also traveled to Egypt , making an alliance with the pharaoh Cleopatra.

In 44 B.C., Caesar named himself dictator for life. Fearing he was becoming a king, a group of senators killed him on the floor of the Senate. Caesar was gone, but his supporters chased down the assassins. His heir and nephew, Octavian, and general Mark Anthony battled for power.

Octavian eventually won and renamed himself Augustus Caesar. (The family name, Caesar, would become a title that future emperors would use to connect themselves back to Gaius Julius Caesar.) He convinced the Senate to give him absolute power and served successfully for 45 years. After his death, he was declared a god.

For the rest of its existence, Rome was ruled by emperors who were not elected—they reigned for life. The Senate was still part of the government, but it had very little power. Some emperors, like Claudius, were good at their jobs; others, like Nero and Caligula, were so cruel that even their guards turned against them. 

By A.D. 117, the Roman Empire included what’s now France, Spain , Greece , Egypt, Turkey , parts of northern Africa, England, Romania, and more. At one point, one out of every four people in the world lived under Rome’s control.

But emperors and the Senate found this vast empire difficult to rule from the city of Rome. In the year 285, it was split into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire. Known as the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire was ruled from the city of Constantinople, now the modern-day city of Istanbul in Turkey.

The Byzantine Empire would last for almost another thousand years, but the Western Empire—Rome—began to fall apart. Civil wars, plagues, money troubles, and invasions from other groups made the empire unstable. In the year 476, a Germanic king overthrew Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor.

Life in ancient Rome

Most people in the city of Rome lived in crowded apartment buildings called insulae  that were five to seven stories high. Wealthier Romans lived in houses called domus that had a dining room and an atrium—an open-air courtyard that often had a pool at the center. Some Romans even had vacation homes in Pompeii and Herculaneum, two Roman cities that were destroyed when Mount Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79.

Rich or poor, Romans gathered to relax, socialize, and clean themselves at Roman baths. Like modern spas, these structures had exercise rooms, swimming pools, saunas, hot and cold plunge pools, and massage spaces. The people also gathered to watch plays, chariot races, and gladiator battles.

Roman citizens enjoyed relaxing, but enslaved people in ancient Rome had a much more difficult life. Many worked in fields, mines, and on ships. Others, like educated Greeks who tutored wealthy children, were forced to work in rich people’s homes. However, some enslaved people were able to buy or earn their freedom and eventually become Roman citizens.

Roman women sometimes worked as midwives—helping to deliver babies—or became priestesses. But in Roman society, women’s main role was to look after the home and family. Although Romans could easily get divorced, children legally belonged to the father (or a male relative if he was no longer living).

Romans believed in many gods, including the sky god Jupiter; Mars, a god who protected Romans in war; and Vesta, the goddess of the home. People would worship these gods and goddesses both at public temples and in their homes.

Why ancient Rome still matters

Today, the city of Rome is the capital of Italy, with around three million people. Visitors can still see many ancient Roman ruins, from the Colosseum to the Roman Forum, where much of ancient Roman politics took place.

But beyond the crumbling buildings, Rome’s impact is seen all over the world today, from huge sports stadiums inspired by the Colosseum to the way that we vote for politicians. The republic’s system of checks and balances on power even inspired the founders of the United States government.

If you drive in Europe or the Middle East today, you might be on a route created by the ancient Romans. Those engineers built a system of 50,000 miles of roads that connected the empire, allowing troops to easily conquer new land and traders to travel and bring back wealth. (It’s where we get the saying, “All roads lead to Rome.”)

You can also thank Roman engineers for perfecting a system for getting running water. They built aqueducts, which were long channels that delivered fresh water from up to 57 miles away for people’s baths, fountains, and even toilets. (Some ancient aqueducts still provide water to modern-day Rome!)

Julius Caesar even gave the world its 365-day calendar with an extra day every fourth year, or leap year. The month of July is named after him, and August is named after his successor, Augustus.

• The planets Mercury , Venus,  Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn are named after Roman gods.
• Roman gods inspired the names of two Western months: January (Janus) and March (Mars).
• Romans spoke Latin, the language that modern French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian are based on.
• Ancient Romans used animal and human urine to clean their clothes.
• A hill in modern-day Rome called Monte Testaccio is an ancient garbage dump made up of smashed pots and jars.
• Romans sometimes filled the Colosseum with water and held naval battles inside.

Read This Next

The lost city of pompeii, the first olympics.

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Ancient Rome

Mar 17, 2019

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Ancient Rome. SOL WHI.6. Geography of Rome. The city of Rome, with its central location on the Italian peninsula, was able to extend its influence over the entire Mediterranean Basin. The Italian peninsula was protected by the sea and an arc of mountains, the Alps. Location and place

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Ancient Rome SOL WHI.6

Geography of Rome • The city of Rome, with its central location on the Italian peninsula, was able to extend its influence over the entire Mediterranean Basin. • The Italian peninsula was protected by the sea and an arc of mountains, the Alps. • Location and place • Rome—Centrally located in the Mediterranean Basin and distant from eastern Mediterranean powers • Italian Peninsula • Alps—Protection • Mediterranean Sea—Protection, sea-borne commerce

Roman Religion • Roman mythology, like Greek mythology, was based upon a polytheistic religion that was integral to culture, politics, and art. • Many of Western civilization’s symbols, metaphors, words, and idealized images come from ancient Roman mythology • Roman mythology • Based on the Greek polytheistic religion • Explanations of natural phenomena, human qualities, and life events • Roman gods and goddesses • Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Diana, Minerva, and Venus • Symbols and images in literature, art, monumental architecture, and politics

The Roman Republic (Representative Democracy) • Although women, most aliens (non-Romans living in the Republic), and slaves were excluded from the governing process, the Roman Republic made major strides in the development of representative democracy, which became a foundation of modern democracy. • Social structure in the Roman Republic • Patricians—Powerful nobility (few in number) • Plebeians—Majority of population • Slaves—Not based on race

The Roman Republic • Citizenship • Patrician and plebeian men • Selected foreigners • Rights and responsibilities of citizenship (taxes, military service) • Features of Democracy • Representative democracy • Assemblies • The Senate • Consuls • Laws of Rome codified as Twelve Tables

Roman domination of the Mediterranean and Western Europe • After the victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars, Rome was able, over the next 100 years, to dominate the Mediterranean basin, leading to the diffusion of Roman culture. • Punic Wars: Rome v. Carthage (264-146 B.C.) • Rome and Carthage were in competition for trade. • Hannibal invaded the Italian Peninsula. • Three wars resulted in Roman victory, the destruction of Carthage, and expanded trade and wealth for Rome.

Roman Culture • Evolution of the Roman Empire and spread of Roman culture • Spread through Mediterranean basin (Africa, Asia, Europe, including the Hellenistic world of the Eastern Mediterranean) Western Europe (Gaul, British Isles)

The Decline of the Roman Republic and the Rise and Evolution of Imperial Rome • The Roman Republic, in the face of changing social and economic conditions, succumbed to civil war and was replaced by an imperial regime, the Roman Empire. • Causes for the decline of the Roman Republic • Spread of slavery in the agricultural system • Migration of small farmers into cities and unemployment • Civil war over the power of Julius Caesar • Devaluation of Roman currency; inflation

The origin and evolution of Imperial Rome • First triumvirate • Julius Caesar—Seizure of power, assassination • Augustus Caesar—Civil war, defeat of Marc Anthony, Rome’s first emperor • Empire—Unified and enlarged, using imperial authority and the military • Failure to provide for peaceful succession of Emperors (huge problem for empire)

The Pax Romana • Augustus Caesar established the Roman Empire by instituting civil service, rule by law, a common coinage, and secure travel and trade throughout the Empire. • Following Augustus Caesar, the Roman Empire enjoyed 200 years of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana. • Expansion and solidification of Roman Empire, particularly in the Near East

Impact of Pax Romana • Economic impact of the Pax Romana • Established uniform system of money, which helped to expand trade • Guaranteed safe travel and trade on Roman roads • Promoted prosperity and stability • Social impact of the Pax Romana • Returned stability to social classes • Increased emphasis on the family • Political impact of the Pax Romana • Created a civil service • Developed a uniform rule of law

The Origins and Spread of Christianity • The followers of Jesus spread Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, bringing it into conflict with Roman polytheism and eventually changing Western civilization. • Origins of Christianity • Had its roots in Judaism • Was led by Jesus of Nazareth, who was proclaimed the Messiah • Conflicted with polytheistic beliefs of Roman Empire

Beliefs, traditions, and customs of Christianity • Monotheism • Jesus as both Son and incarnation of God • Life after death • New Testament, containing accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus, as well as writings of early Christians • Christian doctrine established by early church councils

Spread of Christianity • Carried by the Apostles, including Paul, throughout the Roman Empire • Adopted and legalized by Emperor Constantine

Impact of the Church of Rome in the late Roman Empire • the Roman Empire declined in the West, the Church in Rome grew in importance, membership, and influence. • Church became an example of moral authority. • Loyalty to the church became more important than loyalty to the Emperor. • Church became main unifying force of Western Europe.

The Impact and Spread of Roman Culture • Conquests and trade spread Roman cultural and technological achievements throughout the Empire. • Western civilization was influenced by the cultural achievements of Rome. Contributions of ancient Rome • Art/architecture: Pantheon, Colosseum, Forum • Technology: Roads, aqueducts, Roman arches • Science: Ptolemy • Medicine: Emphasis on public health (public baths; public water system; medical schools) • Language: Latin, Romance languages • Literature: Virgil’s Aeneid • Religion: Roman mythology; adoption of Christianity as the imperial religion • Law: The principle of “innocent until proven guilty” (from the Twelve Tables)

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire • Over a 300-year period, the western part of the Roman Empire steadily declined because of internal and external problems. • Causes for the decline of the Western Roman Empire • Economy—The cost of defense and devaluation of Roman currency • Military—Army membership starting to include invaders, resulting in decline of discipline • Moral decay—People’s loss of faith in Rome and the family • Political problems—Civil conflict and weak administration • Invasion—Attacks on borders

Division of Roman Empire • Move of capital by Constantine from Rome to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople • Survival of Western Roman Empire until 476 A.D., when it ceased to have a Roman Emperor • Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire)

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