research agricultural engineering

Open Access CAAS Agricultural Journals

Research in Agricultural Engineering

Scimago journal rank (scopus).

• ISSN 1212-9151 (Print)
• ISSN 1805-9376 (On-line)

An international open access peer-reviewed journal published by the Czech Academy of Agricultural Sciences and financed by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic. Published since 1954 (by 1999 under the title Zemědělská technika)

• The journal is administered by an international Editorial Board
• Editor-in-Chief: prof. Dr. Ing. František Kumhála
• Co-editors: prof. Ing. David Herák, Ph.D., doc. Ing. Abraham Kabutey, Ph.D.
• Executive Editor: Ing. Gabriela Uhlířová
• The journal is published quarterly
• Publication in the RAE is free of charge

Aims & Scope

original scientific papers, short communications, information, and studies covering all areas of agricultural engineering, agricultural technology, processing of agricultural products, countryside buildings and related problems from ecology, energetics, economy, ergonomy and applied physics and chemistry. Papers are published in English.

Current issue

The effect of parameter adjustment in sago palm classification-based convolutional neural network (cnn) model original paper, sri murniani angelina letsoin, david herák.

In our study location, Merauke Regency, the easternmost city in Indonesia, the sago palm is associated with different types of ecosystems and other non-sago vegetation. During the harvesting season, the white flowers blossoming between the leaves on the tops of palm trees may be distinguished manually. Four classes were determined to address the visual inspections involving different parameters that were examined through the metric evaluation and then analysed statistically. The computed Kruskal-Wallis test found that the parameters vary in each network with a  P -value of 0.00341, with at least one class being higher than the others, i.e., non-sago...

Detecting adulteration in mustard oil using low-frequency dielectric spectroscopy Original Paper

Venkatesh mishra, satyendra pratap singh, sumit kaur bhatia, vishal singh chandel, rajiv manohar.

This paper presents a dielectric spectroscopy approach for analysing the quality of food products. This study aimed to detect the adulteration in mustard oil using dielectric spectroscopy in the 1 to 10 MHz frequency range at a temperature of 30 to 50 °C. The dielectric data were used to predict the adulteration in oils at the given frequency range. The finding indicates that using data analysis techniques can further improve the capacity of dielectric sensing to detect adulterated edible oil. Using MATLAB R2021a, linear relationships between the frequency and adulteration percentage variables were obtained to predict the dielectric constant...

The effect of stimulants on the responsiveness and biorhythms of young operators of agricultural machinery Original Paper

Veronika hartová, jan hart.

Fatigue behind the wheel has been addressed repeatedly for at least 15 years. Various research projects, studies, and systems have been developed to prove the effect of fatigue on the number of accidents and possibly to inform drivers that this situation has occurred. The article examines the influence of stimulants on the fatigue of young agricultural machinery drivers. Commonly available means for reducing driver fatigue were chosen as stimulants (coffee, tea, maté, guarana, energy drink, lemon extract with sugar). A special test station with automatic reaction time evaluation was developed to test drivers’ reaction ability (responsiveness)....

Advancements in fuzzy expert systems for site-specific nitrogen fertilisation: Incorporating RGB colour codes and irrigation schedules for precision maize production in Bangladesh Original Paper

Bitopi biswas, mohammad tariful alam khan, mohammad billal hossain momen, mohammad. rashedur rahman tanvir, abu mohammad shahidul alam, m robiul islam islam.

The research was conducted at the Department of Agronomy and Agricultural Extension, Rajshahi University, from December 2021 to April 2022. The objective was to develop a fuzzy expert system for site-specific N fertilisation using leaf colour code (RGB) and irrigation frequencies for maize yield. The experiment encompassed two primary factors: nitrogen fertiliser application rates ( N 1 : 100%, N 2 : 75%, N 3 : 50% of conventional rates) and irrigation frequencies ( I 1 : 100%, I 2 : 75%, I 3 : 50% of pan evaporation). A completely randomised design...

The efficiency of unmanned aerial vehicles application for rapeseed productivity in Ukraine Short Communication

Fedir melnychuk, svitlana alekseeva, oleksandra hordiienko, oleksii nychyporuk, andrii borysenko, nataliia didenko.

In modern conditions, high-precision technologies, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), are the basis for increasing the efficiency of agricultural land use and crop productivity. Nowadays, new technology development needs to be improved, so the study and the implementation of various innovations in this field are quite relevant and important. The research aimed to find effective pesticides and a selection of spraying solution norms to increase rapeseed yield. The least significant difference test was used to separate the means of the dependent variables in response to predictor variables at P ≤ 0.05. It was established that herbicides...

Effect of physical energy on germination and seedling vigor of alfalfa seeds ( Medicago sativa L.) Short Communication

Ali hajizadeh namin, abbas akbarnia, rouzbeh abbaszadeh, ali zenouzi, majid masoumian.

Recently, non-thermal technologies have emerged as a means to ensure the safety of agricultural products while also promoting plant growth and reducing pathogenic and chemical contamination of seeds. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of various treatments on the germination characteristics of alfalfa seeds. The experiment utilised a completely randomised design with five treatments and three replications, including cold plasma exposure, direct current (DC) electromagnetic field, magnetic field, and a combination of plasma exposure with magnetic and electromagnetic fields. The treated seeds were compared to the control seeds (without...

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Editorial Board ITSC and PAFS Community Editor Call for Nominations )-->

Associate Editors

This peer-reviewed journal publishes applications of engineering and technology research that address agricultural, food, and biological systems problems. Submissions must include results of practical experiences, tests, or trials presented in a manner and style that will allow easy adaptation by others; results of reviews or studies of installations or applications with substantially new or significant information not readily available in other refereed publications; or a description of successful methods of techniques of education, outreach, or technology transfer.

Why publish with us? Meet our previous Editor in Chief .

Read our journal descriptions to see which one is best for your content. Article types include research, research briefs, review, frontier, editorial, and perspective. You may also initiate a special collection or participate in an existing open special collection .

ASABE publishes Applied Engineering in Agriculture six times a year. Open Access may be purchased for your article.

Read about publishing in Navigating the Publication Process: An ASABE Journals’ Perspective . Review the 2019 journal survey results in Changes to ASABE Journals Guided by Member Feedback .

Search for New Journals Editor in Chief

Literature review service (paused until new eic is appointed).

Interested in saving some time and making sure that you cite relevant articles from the society's publications? Complete this Google form to receive a list of key articles to assist with your manuscript preparation. Note there is no obligation to incorporate suggested citations into your article. If you have questions about this optional, free service, please email [email protected] . We look forward to helping you publish your research!

Please welcome our new community editors! Their term starts August 1, 2022.

• Seung-Chul Yoon, Research Electronics Engineer, Quality and Safety Assessment Research Unit, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Information Technology, Sensors, and Control Systems (ITSC)
• Shafi Rahman, former professor, North Dakota State University, Fargo, Plant, Animal, and Facility Systems (PAFS)

Discount for Publishing Your AIM 2024 Presentation in Our Journals

Further develop your AIM non-refereed presentation into a high-quality peer reviewed manuscript, submit to the ASABE journals, and receive a page charge discount of $100 or 10%, if over 10 pages for the final layout. You must be registered for the annual meeting, present your work at the AIM, and submit your manuscript to ScholarOne by October 1, 2024. Note that all manuscripts must go through our high-quality review process to be published in the ASABE journals. When uploading to ScholarOne, at the end of Step 1: Type, Title, & Abstract , be sure to select the special collection Annual International Meeting (AIM) Discount and include in your cover letter your AIM paper number. Step 1: Type, Title, & Abstract , be sure to select the special collection Annual International Meeting (AIM) Discount and include in your cover letter your 2023 AIM paper number.-->

Editor's Choice

Assessment of Spring Potential for Sustainable Agriculture: A Case Study in Lesser Himalayas

In this study, an attempt is made to understand the potential of a spring for agricultural water use by evaluating the crop water requirement and potential improved strategies to increase the water productivity. Analysis proves that crop evapotranspiration is higher (946-1062 mm) for crops with extended duration (165-180 days) as compared to evapotranspiration (92.91 mm) of short duration (60 days) crops. The total water requirement for major crops in the area is 6411.35 mm and the monitored spring has the potential to supplement this water requirement. Adopting the system of rice intensification to increase the rice yield (by 49%), increases the water productivity. The sensitivity analysis of benefit to cost suggests that, an increase in the crop yield by 30% can increase the revenue in the study area by Rs.3687197, which is 217% more than the input costs. Therefore, it is essential to optimize the available water and area for irrigation to achieve the global water security for increasing population. Further, utilizing springs as potential irrigation sources will support rural community in meeting domestic water requirement and achieving environmental sustainability. Findings of this study will help in planning and implementing management strategies that are resilient in the face of future changes and improve the economic condition of farmers.

Recent Special Collections

Circular Food and Agricultural Systems (CFAS)

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) in Agriculture

Computer Modeling and Statistics for Agriculture

Preferential Flow and Piping in Riparian Buffers

Agricultural Conservation Practice Effectiveness

6th Decennial National Irrigation Symposium

Global Water Security

More collections

Call for Papers

The following collections are open to submissions of manuscripts from anyone with relevant content. Please include a cover letter file with your submission that states the name of the collection chosen. Also, choose the special collection name from the list in ScholarOne Step 1.

Water Quality Monitoring: Technologies and Data Stewardship for Low Cost, High-Frequency, and In Situ Data Collection

Organizers and Guest Editors: Kati Migliaccio, Editor, Natural Resources & Environmental Systems (NRES), ASABE Journals Debabrata Sahoo, Special Collection Coordinator/Guest Associate Editor, NRES, ASABE Journals Daren Harmel, Guest Associate Editor, NRES, ASABE Journals Adel Shirmohammadi, Guest Associate Editor, NRES, ASABE Journals Heather Preisendanz, Guest Associate Editor, NRES, ASABE Journals Anita Thompson, Guest Associate Editor, NRES, ASABE Journals

See the Call for Papers flyer for more details and contact information. Articles will be published in our hybrid Journal of the ASABE and Applied Engineering in Agriculture or our open access Journal of Natural Resources and Agricultural Ecosystems . Review our journal descriptions before submitting.

This special collection aims to provide the state-of-the-science and guidance related to lower cost, more practical, higher frequency, and/or in situ technologies. This collection will aid stakeholders and practitioners in collecting flow (discharge) and water quality data (e.g., pathogen, sediment, nutrients) at the small watershed scale in urban and rural settings. It will form the basis for an eventual standard(s) to complement the existing ASABE Engineering Practice 621 on model calibration and evaluation, offering robustness to data collection efforts, enhancing the value of monitoring results, and instilling greater confidence in policy recommendations.

Regenerative Agriculture

Srinivasulu Ale, Meetpal Kukal, and Xiaoyu Feng, Associate Guest Editors Kati Migliaccio, Community Editor, Natural Resources & Environmental Systems, ASABE Journals Garey Fox, Editor-In-Chief, ASABE Journals

See the Call for Papers flyer for more details and contact information. Articles will be published in the 2024 issues of our open access Journal of Natural Resources and Agricultural Ecosystems or hybrid Journal of the ASABE and Applied Engineering in Agriculture . Review our journal descriptions before submitting.

This special collection welcomes papers from a wide range of topics and community contributions related to evaluation of multidimensional impacts of regenerative agricultural practices, including, but not limited to, (1) biophysical impacts, i.e., on soil-plant-atmospheric continuum, resource use efficiency, etc.; (2) environmental, economic, and social outcomes; and (3) technological innovations that streamline and promote adoption of such practices. Experts from within ASABE as well as other synergistic disciplines are invited to participate.

Cyberbiosecurity: Securing Water and Agricultural Systems

Organizer: Feras A. Batarseh, Special Collection Coordinator/Guest Associate Editor

See the Call for Papers flyer for more details and contact information. Articles will be published in the 2024 issues of Journal of the ASABE and Applied Engineering in Agriculture .

As it is becoming increasingly evident, more data are being collected via digital and sensor technologies at water and agricultural systems. Such data are used for intelligent decision making, precision farming, smart irrigation, agricultural production, physical systems control, water quality measurement, and agricultural sustainability.

Consequently, the security and safety of agricultural and water resources are now, more than any other time, connected to digital tools (such as drones), artificial intelligence (AI), and data engineering exercises; and hence, directly affected by Cybersecurity. Cyber attacks are on the rise in all domains; affecting the security of systems, algorithms, and data; biological systems are not an exception (hence the term: Cyberbiosecurity).

This collection presents works that survey, envision, redesign and/or develop methods for (including but not limited to):

• safeguarding data and algorithms in all forms of biological systems,
• protecting and mitigating against cyber-attacks,
• data governance,
• AI-driven methods for bio-security and data management,
• data/AI engineering best practices related to water and agricultural systems,
• the application of data/AI methods by farmers and operators,
• optimizing data science aspects such as data wrangling and preprocessing,
• AI/data-driven outlier detection and mitigation,
• data assurance and quality challenges,
• AI algorithms’ deployment and management,
• the assurance and validation of AI algorithms,
• data/AI-driven environmental laws and policies’ analysis,
• securing sensors and other forms of digital technology in biological systems contexts,
• detecting cyber breaches, ransomware, data poisoning attack and all forms of adversarial breaches, as well as,
• other tangential and related research areas.

Upcoming Collections

Evapotranspiration symposium.

Organizer: Devendra Amatya The collection will be based on presentations at the 2nd ASABE Global Evapotranspiration Symposium to be held October 23-27, 2023 at Penn State.

Frequently Cited

Review our most highly cited journal articles or see some of our most frequently cited below.

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration from Temperature

Characterization of Crude Glycerol from Biodiesel Production from Multiple Feedstocks

Farm’s Sequence of Adoption of Information-intensive Precision Agricultural Technology

Waste To Wisdom: Utilizing Forest Residues for the Production of Bioenergy and Biobased Products

Wireless Sensor Network Effectively Controls Center Pivot Irrigation of Sorghum

The Economics of Biomass Logistics and Conversion Facility Mobility: An Oregon Case Study

Protected Agriculture in Extreme Environments: A Review of Controlled Environment Agriculture in Tropical, Arid, Polar, and Urban Locations

Swine Finishing Room Air Infiltration: Part 1. Quantification and Prediction

Physical Properties of White and Black Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Factory-Calibrated Soil Water Sensor Performance Using Multiple Installation Orientations and Depths

A Soil Water Balance Model for Subsurface Water Management

Effect of Shaking Location and Duration on Mechanical Harvesting of Fresh Market Apples

Variety Effects on Cotton Yield Monitor Calibration

Recent Open or Public Access

Effect of Collector Size on Center Pivot Water Depth Catch

Potential Water Conservation Using Site-Specific Variable Rate Irrigation

Identifying Advantages and Disadvantages of Variable Rate Irrigation: An Updated Review

Comparison of Stationary and Moving Infrared Thermometer Measurements Aboard a Center Pivot

Kansas Center Pivot Uniformity Evaluation Overview

The Impact of Historical Gin Stand Technologies on Cotton Fiber and Seed Quality

Calibration of Stainless Steel-edged V-Notch Weir Stop Logs for Water Level Control Structures

Outstanding Associate Editors for 2023

The high quality of ASABE peer­ reviewed journal publications could not be maintained without the dedicated service of associate editors, who spend hours working closely with reviewers, authors and editors during the peer review process for each manuscript.

• Brendan Higgins
• Farzaneh Khorsandi
• Michael Sama
• Sanjay Shah
• Shaojin Wang

Outstanding Reviewers for 2022

Our peer­ reviewed journals could not be successful without reviewers willing to spend hours evaluating author manuscripts and making suggestions for improvements.

• Tamie Veith
• Paul Colaizzi
• John Gilley
• Mark Casada
• Kaushlendra Tingi Singh

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Peer-Reviewed Journals

Research - Agricultural & Biological Engineering - Purdue University

The Purdue University Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering is consistently ranked among the top in the nation.

Our innovative research focuses on the application of engineering principles to develop new technologies for more sustainable food production and processing, novel bio-based products, and better environmental stewardship. Digital technology is changing how food, energy, water and health are being managed and maintained. ABE is a significant partner bridging agriculture and engineering to design the next improvements in data analysis, automation, and decision-support tools for agriculture.

Graduate education is the foundation of our quest to extend knowledge frontiers. Excellent facilities and internationally-known faculty support approximately 120 graduate students per year in the areas of:

Agriculture has one of the highest fatal injury rates of any U.S. industry sector, and agricultural systems face a variety of risks. Our research improves agricultural safety and health by addressing agricultural injury prevention, emergency preparedness, homeland security, and rehabilitation services to farmers impacted by disability. Specific programs include AgrAbility (a national program to assist farmers with disabilities), IN-PREPared (rural disaster mitigation, response, and recovery), and Gearing Up for Safety (national program for young and beginning workers in agriculture). Through research-based programs we assist rural residents in making their homes, workplaces and communities safer and healthier places to live and work. Graduates are employed in Education, Government, Insurance and Industry.

Agricultural Systems Management (ASM) merges knowledge of design with management principles adapting to real-world environmental conditions to create and implement novel and practical solutions for off-road vehicle applications, crop production, material storage and transfer. This is a technology and applications focused area where an engineering undergraduate degree is not necessary. ASM Graduate Students utilize their in-depth technical skills to solve problems by applying advancements in equipment, structures, controlled environments, and production systems with business management skills necessary for graduates to successfully lead in their future careers, including: Agricultural and Power Equipment Manufacturing, Product Testing, Sales, Precision Agriculture, Government, and Education.

Biological systems are at the heart of solutions to problems related to the environment, energy, health, food, and sustainability. Biological engineering graduate students use tools, either through computation and modeling or instrumentation and biological and biochemical methods, to create and manipulate cells and cellular materials for a variety of applications relating to human, plant, and animal systems. This emerging field is expected to rapidly advance and open opportunities in biomanufacturing, biosensors, microbiome, biomaterials, human therapeutics, tissue and organ regeneration, computational genomics, high-throughput sequencing algorithms, bioenergy and biofuel production, bioremediation, and biodefense. 

The digital revolution empowers food system stakeholders to improve the resilience, sustainability, and profitability of food and agricultural systems. Agricultural data science leverages novel algorithms, biophysical and machine learning models, and other digital tools to improve supply chain transparency, optimize resource use, and address systemic bottlenecks in food and agricultural systems. These heterogeneous data come from low-cost sensors, IoT devices, unmanned aerial systems or satellites, field-going machinery, and public economic, environmental and social datasets. Through hardware and software engineering including cloud and edge-computing, we develop autonomous robots and decision tools, while working on usability, interoperability, connectivity, and other wicked technological challenges in agriculture.

Sustainability and resilience of natural resources depends on the integration of laboratory and field experimentation, data analytics, and modeling in novel ways. In Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering we develop sustainable solutions to environmental problems at local and global levels. We create and evaluate new soil and water conservation systems, analyze drivers of ecosystem processes that reduce pollution, quantify the effects of climate and land use change, and advance waste management and utilization for renewable energy generation. Research opportunities include air quality, water resources engineering, in-situ and remote sensing systems, animal environments and welfare, and sustainable food production systems.

Biological manufacturing methods and feedstocks with low carbon footprints can create sustainable solutions that address challenges of food security, food safety, and health while adding value to agriculture. Our research addresses the engineering fundamentals for sustainable manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, foods, and bioproducts derived from agricultural and cellulosic renewable resources.   We strive to educate our students to be the best – and do their best – in the design, analysis, prediction, modeling, control and optimization of processes that capitalize on the unique biophysical behavior of biological molecules, as well as the products from which they are derived. Our goal is to develop platforms that enable unique products to be manufactured in new ways.

In Machine Systems Engineering we develop innovative and increasingly automated machines for agricultural, construction, mining, forestry, and transportation systems by integrating data, robotics, fluid power, and systems thinking to optimize water, energy, food, and environment interactions. Research teams are creating new technologies to solve problems related to production efficiencies, energy usage, human-machine interfaces, environmental impacts of road machinery, and food production. Agricultural engineers merge knowledge of engineering design with real-world environmental conditions to create novel and practical solutions for off-road vehicle applications, crop production, storage, and transfer.

Additional focus areas for graduate students include Biological Engineering and Technology, BioNanotechnology, Ecological Sciences and Engineering, Fluid Power, Machine Systems, and Agrosecurity.

Come join our program - take #TheNextGiantLeap!

Agricultural and Natural Resources Engineering

Research overview.

Increasing population and shifting climate and social patterns raise major concerns for global food security.  Increased production and intensification of both plant and animal agriculture to address these concerns will require greater use of automation and precision management to improve resource use efficiency and overall sustainability.

California is a leader in specialty crop production with more than 400 commodities and an annual worth of more than $47 billion, but this production is also labor, energy and nutrient intensive and relies heavily on irrigation. Significant opportunities exist for new and smarter engineered production systems to help maintain the competitiveness of the state’s agricultural industry. Research covers a wide array of topics including the following examples:

• Mechanization and automation for animal and plant systems
• New technologies for precision agriculture, sensing, automation and control
• Advances in hydrology, irrigation and drainage, air and water quality, soil and water engineering
• Aquacultural systems for fish culture and conservation
• New sources of protein in foods and feeds
• Sustainable replacements to agricultural chemicals and fumigants
• Specialized technologies for international agricultural development
• Biomechanics and engineering solutions for improved occupational safety and health
• Forest and landscape management and protection

Click here to see more examples and potential career paths in Agricultural and Natural Resources Engineering.

Recent Research Results

Increasing automation and control using 3d reconstruction system for plants.

"Structured Light-Based 3D Reconstruction System for Plant": Full 3D reconstruction system that incorporates both hardware structures (including the proposed structured light system to enhance textures on object surfaces) and software algorithms (including the proposed 3D point cloud registration and plant feature measurement)...Experimental results show that, for plants having a range of leaf sizes and a distance between leaves appropriate for the hardware design, the algorithms successfully predict phenotyping features in the target crops, with a recall of 0.97 and a precision of 0.89 for leaf detection and less than a 13-mm error for plant size, leaf size and internode distance.

Nguyen, T.T., Slaughter, D.C., Max, N., Maloof, J.N. and Sinha, N., 2015. Structured light-based 3D reconstruction system for plants. Sensors , 15 (8), pp.18587-18612.

Continuous Leaf Monitoring to Inform Irrigation Scheduling

"Development of a Continuous Leaf Monitoring System to Predict Plant Water Status": Leaf temperature is a good indicator of water stress. In this study, a system was developed to monitor leaf temperature and microclimatic environmental variables to predict plant water stress. This system, called the leaf monitor, monitored plant water status by continuously measuring leaf temperature, air temperature, relative humidity, ambient light, and wind conditions in the vicinity of a shaded leaf...The system was found to be reliable and capable of providing real-time visualization of the data remotely, with minimal technical problems. Leaf monitor data were used to develop modified crop water stress index (MCWSI) values for quantifying plant water stress levels.

Irrigation Management Strategies for Sorghum

"Evaluating Deficit Irrigation Management Strategies for Grain Sorghum Using AquaCrop": Many wells in the US Central Plains can no longer meet full crop water requirements due to declines in Ogallala aquifer water levels. A study was conducted in Southwest Kansas to determine optimum limited irrigation strategies for grain sorghum. Objectives were to (1) calibrate and validate the AquaCrop model, (2) apply AquaCrop to assess the effect of varying climate, planting dates, and soil types on yield, and (3) evaluate water productivities and optimal irrigation needs. Experimental data of grain sorghum were used to calibrate and validate AquaCrop...Fluctuations in grain sorghum prices had a substantial impact on economic water productivity. Overall planting grain sorghum under optimum conditions combined with deficit irrigation improved water productivity.

Araya, A., Kisekka, I. and Holman, J., 2016. Evaluating deficit irrigation management strategies for grain sorghum using AquaCrop. Irrigation science , 34 (6), pp.465-481.

Evaluating Biomechanical Lumbopelvic Rhythm Differences

"Differences in Lumbopelvic Rhythm Between Trunk Flexion and Extention": The current study investigated the differences in lumbopelvic rhythm between trunk flexion and extension, and how the rhythm changed within each of the two motions. Thirteen subjects performed pace-controlled trunk flexion/extension motions in the sagittal plane while lumbar and pelvis kinematics data were recorded, such that the lumbopelvic continuous relative phase and phase variability could be calculated to quantify lumbopelvic rhythm. Trunk extension motion had significantly smaller lumbopelvic continuous relative phase and phase variability than flexion motion, which indicated a more in-phase and stable rhythm. Additionally, the lumbopelvic rhythm within trunk extension motion changed from a more in-phase and stable pattern to a more out-of-phase and unstable pattern; by contrast, the opposite change (from out-of-phase and unstable to in-phase and stable) was observed in trunk flexion.