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Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods

Siedlecki, Sandra L. PhD, RN, APRN-CNS, FAAN

Author Affiliation: Senior Nurse Scientist and Clinical Nurse Specialist, Office of Nursing Research & Innovation, Nursing Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Ohio.

The author reports no conflicts of interest.

Correspondence: Sandra L. Siedlecki, PhD, RN, APRN-CNS, 3271 Stillwater Dr, Medina, OH 44256 ( [email protected] ).

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Introducing Research Designs

First Online: 10 November 2021

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Stefan Hunziker 3 &
Michael Blankenagel 3

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We define research design as a combination of decisions within a research process. These decisions enable us to make a specific type of argument by answering the research question. It is the implementation plan for the research study that allows reaching the desired (type of) conclusion. Different research designs make it possible to draw different conclusions. These conclusions produce various kinds of intellectual contributions. As all kinds of intellectual contributions are necessary to increase the body of knowledge, no research design is inherently better than another, only more appropriate to answer a specific question.

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Hunziker, S., Blankenagel, M. (2021). Introducing Research Designs. In: Research Design in Business and Management. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-34357-6_1

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Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods

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1 Author Affiliation: Senior Nurse Scientist and Clinical Nurse Specialist, Office of Nursing Research & Innovation, Nursing Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Ohio.
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Qualitative Descriptive Methods in Health Science Research

Karen jiggins colorafi.

1 College of Nursing & Health Innovation, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA

Bronwynne Evans

The purpose of this methodology paper is to describe an approach to qualitative design known as qualitative descriptive that is well suited to junior health sciences researchers because it can be used with a variety of theoretical approaches, sampling techniques, and data collection strategies.

Background:

It is often difficult for junior qualitative researchers to pull together the tools and resources they need to embark on a high-quality qualitative research study and to manage the volumes of data they collect during qualitative studies. This paper seeks to pull together much needed resources and provide an overview of methods.

A step-by-step guide to planning a qualitative descriptive study and analyzing the data is provided, utilizing exemplars from the authors’ research.

This paper presents steps to conducting a qualitative descriptive study under the following headings: describing the qualitative descriptive approach, designing a qualitative descriptive study, steps to data analysis, and ensuring rigor of findings.

Conclusions:

The qualitative descriptive approach results in a summary in everyday, factual language that facilitates understanding of a selected phenomenon across disciplines of health science researchers.

There is an explosion in qualitative methodologies among health science researchers because social problems lend themselves toward thoughtful exploration, such as when issues of interest are complex, have variables or concepts that are not easily measured, or involve listening to populations who have traditionally been silenced ( Creswell, 2013 ). Creswell (2013 , p. 48) suggests qualitative research is preferred when health science researchers seek to (a) share individual stories, (b) write in a literary, flexible style, (c) understand the context or setting of issues, (d) explain mechanisms or linkages in causal theories, (e) develop theories, and (f) when traditional quantitative statistical analyses do not fit the problem at hand. Typically, qualitative textbooks present learners with five approaches for qualitative inquiry: narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, case study, and ethnography. Yet eminent researcher Margarete Sandelowski argues that in “the now vast qualitative methods literature, there is no comprehensive description of qualitative description as a distinctive method of equal standing with other qualitative methods, although it is one of the most frequently employed methodological approaches in the practice disciplines” ( Sandelowski, 2000 ). Qualitative description is especially amenable to health environments research because it provides factual responses to questions about how people feel about a particular space, what reasons they have for using features of the space, who is using particular services or functions of a space, and the factors that facilitate or hinder use.

The purpose of this methodology article is to define and outline qualitative description for health science researchers, providing a starter guide containing important primary sources for those who wish to become better acquainted with this methodological approach.

Describing the Qualitative Descriptive Approach

In two seminal articles, Sandelowski promotes the mainstream use of qualitative description ( Sandelowski, 2000 , 2010 ) as a well-developed but unacknowledged method which provides a “comprehensive summary of an event in the every day terms of those events” ( Sandelowski, 2000 , p. 336). Such studies are characterized by lower levels of interpretation than are high-inference qualitative approaches such as phenomenology or grounded theory and require a less “conceptual or otherwise highly abstract rendering of data” ( Sandelowski, 2000 , p. 335). Researchers using qualitative description “stay closer to their data and to the surface of words and events” ( Sandelowski, 2000 , p. 336) than many other methodological approaches. Qualitative descriptive studies focus on low-inference description, which increases the likelihood of agreement among multiple researchers. The difference between high and low inference approaches is not one of rigor but refers to the amount of logical reasoning required to move from a data-based premise to a conclusion. Researchers who use qualitative description may choose to use the lens of an associated interpretive theory or conceptual framework to guide their studies, but they are prepared to alter that framework as necessary during the course of the study ( Sandelowski, 2010 ). These theories and frameworks serve as conceptual hooks upon which hang study procedures, analysis, and re-presentation. Findings are presented in straightforward language that clearly describes the phenomena of interest.

Other cardinal features of the qualitative descriptive approach include (a) a broad range of choices for theoretical or philosophical orientations, (b) the use of virtually any purposive sampling technique (e.g., maximum variation, homogenous, typical case, criterion), (c) the use of observations, document review, or minimally to moderately structured interview or focus group questions, (d) content analysis and descriptive statistical analysis as data analysis techniques, and (e) the provision of a descriptive summary of the informational contents of the data organized in a way that best fits the data ( Neergaard, Olesen, Andersen, & Sondergaard, 2009 ; Sandelowski, 2000 , 2001 , 2010 ).

Designing a Qualitative Descriptive Study

Methodology.

Unlike traditional qualitative methodologies such as grounded theory, which are built upon a particular, prescribed constellation of procedures and techniques, qualitative description is grounded in the general principles of naturalistic inquiry. Lincoln and Guba suggest that naturalistic inquiry deals with the concept of truth, whereby truth is “a systematic set of beliefs, together with their accompanying methods” ( Lincoln & Guba, 1985 , p. 16). Using an often eclectic compilation of sampling, data collection, and data analysis techniques, the researcher studies something in its natural state and does not attempt to manipulate or interfere with the ordinary unfolding of events. Taken together, these practices lead to “true understanding” or “ultimate truth.” Table 1 describes design elements in two exemplar qualitative descriptive studies and serves as guide to the following discussion.

Example of Study Design Elements for Two Studies.

Design Element	Patient engagement with the plan of care	Mexican American caregivers
Theory	Individual and family self-management theory	Life course perspective
Sampling strategy	Multiple case purposive sampling	Stratified purposeful sampling
Data collection	40 Observations with semistructured interviews/standardized instruments at clinical encounter	6 Semistructured interviews/standardized instruments at 10-week intervals for 15 months
Data analysis	Directed content analysis, descriptive statistics	Conventional content analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics
Data re-presentation	Ideas derived from interviews and observations lead to the creation of recommendations, written in the voice of the patient, and presented according to the theoretical framework	Several data cuts and secondary analyses using verbatim data, its relationship with the theoretical framework, and a primarily qualitative format

Theoretical Framework

Theoretical frameworks serve as organizing structures for research design: sampling, data collection, analysis, and interpretation, including coding schemes, and formatting hypothesis for further testing ( Evans, Coon, & Ume, 2011 ; Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014 ; Sandelowski, 2010 ). Such frameworks affect the way in which data are ultimately viewed; qualitative description supports and allows for the use of virtually any theory ( Sandelowski, 2010 ). Creswell’s chapter on “Philosophical Assumptions and Interpretative Frameworks” (2013) is a useful place to gain understanding about how to embed a theory into a study.

Sampling choices place a boundary around the conclusions you can draw from your qualitative study and influence the confidence you and others place in them ( Miles et al., 2014 ). A hallmark of the qualitative descriptive approach is the acceptability of virtually any sampling technique (e.g., maximum variation where you aim to collect as many different cases as possible or homogenous whereby participants are mostly the same). See Miles, Huberman, and Saldana’s (2014 , p. 30) “Bounding the Collection of Data” discussion to select an appropriate and congruent purposive sampling strategy for your qualitative study.

Data Collection

In qualitative descriptive studies, data collection attempts to discover “the who, what and where of events” or experiences ( Sandelowski, 2000 , p.339). This includes, but is not limited to focus groups, individual interviews, observation, and the examination of documents or artifacts.

Data Analysis

Content analysis refers to a technique commonly used in qualitative research to analyze words or phrases in text documents. Hsieh and Shannon (2005) present three types of content analysis, any of which could be used in a qualitative descriptive study. Conventional content analysis is used in studies that aim to describe a phenomenon where exiting research and theory are limited. Data are collected from open-ended questions, read word for word, and then coded. Notes are made and codes are categorized. Directed content analysis is used in studies where existing theory or research exists: it can be used to further describe phenomena that are incomplete or would benefit from further description. Initial codes are created from theory or research and applied to data and unlabeled portions of text are given new codes. Summative content analysis is used to quantify and interpret words in context, exploring their usage. Data sources are typically seminal texts or electronic word searches.

Quantitative data can be included in qualitative descriptive studies if they aim to more adequately or fully describe the participants or phenomenon of interest. Counting is conceptualized as a “means to and end, not the end itself” by Sandelowski (2000 , p. 338) who emphasizes that careful descriptive statistical analysis is an effort to understand the content of data, not simply the means and frequencies, and results in a highly nuanced description of the patterns or regularities of the phenomenon of interest ( Sandelowski, 2000 , 2010 ). The use of validated measures can assist with generating dependable and meaningful findings, especially when the instrument (e.g., survey, questionnaire, or list of questions) used in your study has been used in others, helping to build theory, improve predictions, or make recommendations ( Miles et al., 2014 ).

Data Re-Presentation

In clear and simple terms, the “expected outcome of qualitative descriptive studies is a straight forward descriptive summary of the informational contents of data organized in a way that best fits the data” ( Sandelowski, 2000 , p. 339). Data re-presentation techniques allow for tremendous creativity and variation among researchers and studies. Several good resources are provided to spur imagination ( Miles et al., 2014 ; Munhall & Chenail, 2008 ; Wolcott, 2009 ).

Steps to Data Analysis

It is often difficult for junior health science researchers to know what to do with the volumes of data collected during a qualitative study and formal course work in traditional qualitative methods courses are typically sparse regarding the specifics of data management. It is for those reasons that this section of our article will provide a detailed description of the data analysis techniques used in qualitative descriptive methodology. The following steps are case examples of a study undertaken by one author (K.J.C.) after completing a data management course offered by another author (B.E.). Examples are offered from the two studies noted in Table 1 . It is offered in list format for general readability, but the qualitative researcher should recognize that qualitative analyses are iterative and recursive by nature.

Example of a Coding Manual.

1. Cultural expectation (values, beliefs, and activities seen as normative by members of the culture who learn, share, and transmit this knowledge to others) ^ is a result of ^
1A	: Expressing strong support and intergenerational reliance (family is main source of social interaction; transcends SES or gender)	We were raised to take care of …. We don’t put them in a nursing home facility. Like a lot of my gringo friends have done that. It’s so sad. I couldn’t live if I did that. It’s not in me. SabanaTI/2, p. 5 Her mother took care of her grandmother, and my mother took care of my grandmother and both took care of her mother, both had some help taking care of my dad when he was sick, and I know that it was inbred in me, not really inbred, but something I saw; you follow suit by example. SalTI, p. 9
1 B	: Feeling strong familial and moral obligation to unconditionally help and care for elders who cared for you	When you were little, your parents changed your diapers. Now that they are older it’s up to you take care of them, Honor Your Father and Mother by taking care of them, now that they need from you because you needed from them when you were growing up. CalandriaT1, p. 10
1C	: Acting with saintliness and goodness of Virgin Mary; a sense of nobility and dignity; self-sacrifice, faithfulness, and subordination to husband (father, brothers)	My wife fell right in along beside me [for caregiving}, yes. SalTI, p. 8 This is the mother of my husband, and the grandmother of my children. So this is the message that I give. Because it is the saddest thing for a person to become a senior and find themselves forgotten, abandoned, uncared for, hungry, dirty, exiled. This is most grievous … NevaTI, p. 4

Note . SES = socioeconomic status.

Reading from the left in Table 2 , codes were given a number and letter for use in marking sections of text. Next, the code name indicating a theme was entered in boldface type with a definition in the code immediately under it. The second column provided an exemplar of each code, along with a notation indicating where it was found in the data, so that coders could recognize instances of that particular code when they saw them.

The coding manual was tested against data gathered in a preliminary study and was revised as codes found to overlap or be missing entirely. We continued to revise it iteratively during the study as data collection and analysis proceeded and then used it to recode previously coded data. Using this procedure, it was used to revisit the data several times.

Each transcribed document was formatted with wide right margins that allowed the investigator to apply codes and generate marginal remarks by hand. Marginal remarks are handwritten comments entered by the investigator. They represent an attempt to stay “alert” about analysis, forming ideas and recording reactions to the meaning of what is seen in the data. Marginal remarks often suggest new interpretations, leads, and connections or distinctions with other parts of the data ( Miles et al., 2014 ). Such remarks are preanalytic and add meaning and clarity to transcripts.

Level 1 Coding With Meaning Units.

Original text (meaning unit highlighted in relation to applied code)	Code(s) applied to meaning unit
I try to eat well. My wife seems to do a good job with that stuff and everything. I am fairly active around the house and stuff
I’ve recently become semi-retired, so even though retirement means like relaxation, it really hasn’t. It has just given me more work to do around the house and stuff, and again, having children of my own, basically, I not only have a honey-do list from wife, I have a honey-do list for my two charming daughters
Again too, I’d like to be around as long as possible. I enjoy life. I try to enjoy it to the fullest. I’d like to be—I want to live life. I don’t want survive, I guess is what I’d say. I’ve seen too many instances of this. My mother-in-law is a prime example. She is in an assisted-living facility, and I really think she’s just about, I don’t want to say given up and stuff, but she’s not living. She is surviving. I think that’s sad. I really do. I think you are going to get out of life what you put into life. I think if she would put a little more effort into life, her life would be a lot more fulfilling and rewarding to her and basically to people around her

Conceptually similar codes were organized into categories (coding groups of coded themes that were increasingly abstract) through revisiting the theory framing the study (asking, “does this system of coding make sense according to the chosen theory?”). Miles et al. (2014) provide many examples for creating, categorizing, and revising codes, including highlighting a technique used by Corbin and Strauss ( Corbin & Strauss, 2015 ) that includes growing a list of codes and then applying a slightly more abstract label to the code, creating new categories of codes with each revision. This is often referred to as second-level or pattern coding, a way of grouping data into a smaller number of sets, themes, or constructs. During the analysis of data, patterns were generated and the researcher spent significant amounts of time with different categorizations, asking questions, checking relationships, and generally resisting the urge to be “locked too quickly into naming a pattern” ( Miles et al., 2014 , p. 69).
During this phase of analysis, pattern codes were revised and redefined in the coding manual and exemplars were used to clarify the understanding of each code. Miles et al. (2014) suggest that software can be helpful during this categorization (counting) step, so lists of observed engagement behaviors were also recorded in Dedoose software ( Dedoose, 2015 ) by code so that frequencies could be captured and analyzed. Despite the assistance of Dedoose, the researcher found that hand sorting codes into themes and categories was best done on paper.

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Example of an analytic memo used in qualitative description analysis.

Data Matrix.

Case	CLOX-CG	CLOX-CR	CG Vigilance Scale	CG Strain	CG Gain
1	5 ( )	1 ( )	20 hr/wk ( )	Moderate: fatigue and moderate anxiety	Moderate: Giving back to mom
2	3 ( )	1 ( )	30 hr/wk ( )	High: debilitating fatigue, high anxiety, feels depressed, and sleeplessness	Low: Unable to see positive aspects

Note . The CLOX is an executive clock drawing task that tests cognition and was used in this study with the caregiver (CG) and the care recipient (CR). The CG Strain and the CG Gain scores were derived by the researcher through a qualitative content analysis ( Evans, Coon, & Belyea, 2006 ).

Finally, the data are re-presented in a creative but rigorous way that are judged to best fit the findings ( Miles et al., 2014 ; Sandelowski & Leeman, 2012 ; Stake, 2010 ; Wolcott, 2009 ).

Strategies for Ensuring Rigor of Findings

Many qualitative researchers do not provide enough information in their reports about the analytic strategies used to ensure verisimilitude or the “ring of truth” for the conclusions. Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) outline 13 tactics for generating meaning from data and another 13 for testing or confirming findings. They also provide five standards for assessing the quality of conclusions. The techniques relied upon most heavily during a qualitative descriptive study ought to be addressed within the research report. It is important to establish “trustworthiness” and “authenticity” in qualitative research that are similar to the terms validity and reliability in quantitative research. The five standards (objectivity, dependability, credibility, transferability, and application) typically used in qualitative descriptive studies to assess quality and legitimacy (trustworthiness and authenticity) of the conclusions are discussed in the next sections ( Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ; Miles et al., 2014 ).

Objectivity

First, objectivity (confirmability) is conceptualized as relative neutrality and reasonable freedom from researcher bias and can be addressed by (a) describing the study’s methods and procedures in explicit detail, (b) sharing the sequence of data collection, analysis, and presentation methods to create an audit trail, (c) being aware of and reporting personal assumptions and potential bias, (d) retaining study data and making it available to collaborators for evaluation.

Dependability

Second, dependability (reliability or auditability) can be fostered by consistency in procedures across participants over time through various methods, including the use of semistructured interview questions and an observation data collection worksheet. Quality control ( Miles et al., 2014 ) can be fostered by:

deriving study procedures from clearly outlined research questions and conceptual theory, so that data analysis could be linked back to theoretical constructs;
clearly describing the investigator’s role and status at the research site;
demonstrating parallelism in findings across sources (i.e., interview vs. observation, etc.);
triangulation through the use of observations, interviews, and standardized measures to more adequately describe various characteristics of the sample population ( Denzin & Lincoln, 1994 );
demonstrating consistency in data collection for all participants (i.e., using the same investigator and preprinted worksheets, asking the same questions in the same order);
developing interview questions and observation techniques based on theory, revised, and tested during preliminary work;
developing a coding manual a priori to guide data analysis, containing a “start list” of codes derived from the theoretical framework and relevant literature ( Fonteyn et al., 2008 ; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005 ; Miles et al., 2014 ); and
developing a monitoring plan (fidelity) to ensure that junior researchers, especially do not go “beyond the data” ( Sandelowski, 2000 ) in interpretation. In keeping with the qualitative tradition, data analysis and collection should occur simultaneously, giving the investigator the opportunity to correct errors or make revisions.

Credibility

Third, credibility or verisimilitude (internal validity) is defined as the truth value of data: Do the findings of the study make sense ( Miles et al., 2014 , p. 312). Credibility in qualitative work promotes descriptive and evaluative understanding, which can be addressed by (a) providing context-rich “thick descriptions,” that is, the work of interpretation based on data ( Sandelowski, 2004 ), (b) checking with other practitioners or researchers that the findings “ring true,” (c) providing a comprehensive account, (d) using triangulation strategies, (e) searching for negative evidence, and (f) linking findings to a theoretical framework.

Transferability

Fourth, transferability (external validity or “fittingness”) speaks to whether the findings of your study have larger import and application to other settings or studies. This includes a discussion of generalizability. Sample to population generalizability is important to quantitative researchers and less helpful to qualitative researchers who seek more of an analytic or case-to-case transfer ( Miles et al., 2014 ). Nonetheless, transferability can be aided by (a) describing the characteristics of the participants fully so that comparisons with other groups may be made, (b) adequately describing potential threats to generalizability through sample and setting sections, (c) using theoretical sampling, (d) presenting findings that are congruent with theory, and (e) suggesting ways that findings from your study could be tested further by other researchers.

Application

Finally, Miles et al. (2014) speak to the utilization, application, or action orientation of the data. “Even if we know that a study’s findings are valid and transferable,” they write, “we still need to know what the study does for its participants and its consumers” ( Miles et al., 2014 , p. 314). To address application, findings of qualitative descriptive studies are typically made accessible to potential consumers of information through the publication of manuscripts, poster presentations, and summary reports written for consumers. In addition, qualitative descriptive study findings may stimulate further research, promote policy discussions, or suggest actual changes to a product or environment.

Implications for Practice

The qualitative description clarified and advocated by Sandelowski (2000 , 2010 ) is an excellent methodological choice for the healthcare environments designer, practitioner, or health sciences researcher because it provides rich descriptive content from the subjects’ perspective. Qualitative description allows the investigator to select from any number of theoretical frameworks, sampling strategies, and data collection techniques. The various content analysis strategies described in this paper serve to introduce the investigator to methods for data analysis that promote staying “close” to the data, thereby avoiding high-inference techniques likely challenging to the novice investigator. Finally, the devotion to thick description (interpretation based on data) and flexibility in the re-presentation of study findings is likely to produce meaningful information to designers and healthcare leaders. The practical, step-by-step nature of this article should serve as a starting guide to researchers interested in this technique as a way to answer their own burning questions.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to recognize the other members of her dissertation committee for their contributions to the study: Gerri Lamb, Karen Dorman Marek, and Robert Greenes.

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Research assistance for data analysis and manuscript development was supported by training funds from the National Institutes of Health/National Institute on Nursing Research (NIH/NINR), award T32 1T32NR012718-01 Transdisciplinary Training in Health Disparities Science (C. Keller, P.I.). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH or the NINR. This research was supported through the Hartford Center of Gerontological Nursing Excellence at Arizona State University College of Nursing & Health Innovation.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Methodology

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

Descriptive research question examples

How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

Describing the demographics of a country or region
Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Ecological validity

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

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Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

The book Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches by Creswell (2014) covers three approaches-qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. This educational book is informative and illustrative and is equally beneficial for students, teachers and researchers. Readers should have basic knowledge of research for better understanding of this book. There are two parts of the book. Part 1 (chapter 1-4) consists of steps for developing research proposal and part II (chapter 5-10) explains how to develop a research proposal or write a research report. A summary is given at the end of every chapter that helps the reader to recapitulate the ideas. Moreover, writing exercises and suggested readings at the end of every chapter are useful for the readers. Chapter 1 opens with-definition of research approaches and the author gives his opinion that selection of a research approach is based on the nature of the research problem, researchers' experience and the audience of the study. The author defines qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods research. A distinction is made between quantitative and qualitative research approaches. The author believes that interest in qualitative research increased in the latter half of the 20th century. The worldviews, Fraenkel, Wallen and Hyun (2012) and Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2005) call them paradigms, have been explained. Sometimes, the use of language becomes too philosophical and technical. This is probably because the author had to explain some technical terms.

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Conducting a well-established research requires deep knowledge about the research designs. Doing research can be likened to jumping into the sea which may transform into a huge ocean if the researcher is not experienced. As a PhD candidate and a novice researcher, I believe that the book "Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches" by J.W. Creswell is a true reference guide for novice researchers since it is the most comprehensive and informative source with its reader-friendly structure.

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John W. Creswell was previously a professor in educational psychology in the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. He moved to the University of Michigan in 2015 as a professor in the Department of Family Medicine. He has published many articles and close to 27 books on mixed methods. Professor Creswell is also one of the founding members of the Journal of Mixed Methods Research. He was a Fulbright scholar in South Africa in 2008 and Thailand in 2012. In 2011, he served as a visiting professor in the School of Public Health of Harvard University. In 2014, he became the Chairman of the Mixed Methods International Research Association. Professor Creswell has a personal website called “Mixed Methods Research” at http://johnwcreswell.com/. The site contains the information about his background, his own blog, consulting works and published books. He also posted replies questions from academic researchers and practitioners in the blog.

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To understand educational research, you now have the map (the steps that exist in the process of research) and the different paths you can take (quantitative and qualitative). Now we will explore some distinguishing features along the qualitative research design. These features are the research designs you can use to collect, analyze, and interpret data using quantitative and qualitative research. Some of the research designs may be familiar; others may be new, such as how these paths can converge with two designs called mixed methods research and action research. The discussion of designs will provide a more advanced understanding of educational research on your journey.

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Health sciences students’ perspectives on metaverse and digital technology use: cross-sectional descriptive study

Hale Sezer 1 &
Abdülkadir Gül 2

BMC Nursing volume 23 , Article number: 656 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Students’ attitudes towards digital technologies affect their use of innovations in digital education. In the study, it was aimed to determine undergraduate health sciences students’ views about the Metaverse and digital technology.

This study was a cross-sectional descriptive study. In the study sample, 289 health sciences students who voluntarily agreed to participate in the research and filled out the online data collection form were included. The Independent Samples T-Test, Multivariate ANOVA analysis of variance (MANOVA) and Pearson correlation analysis were used. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

The mean score the participants obtained from the Metaverse Scale was 53.54 ± 9.00, indicating that their levels of knowledge and awareness about the Metaverse were high. The mean score they obtained from the Attitude Scale for Digital Technology was 135.98 ± 21.28, which indicated that displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology. There was no significant difference between the mean scores the participants obtained from the Attitude Scale for Digital Technology and the Metaverse Scale according to their departments and years in school. There was a positive and weak relationship between the Metaverse Scale scores and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology scores.

Conclusions

The participants’ knowledge and awareness levels about the Metaverse were high and they displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology. It is recommended that digital technologies should be used in planning undergraduate education and Metaverse platforms or applications in virtual classroom settings.

Peer Review reports

Innovations in digital education, artificial intelligence and Metaverse are indispensable for learning, and educational innovation in the future [ 1 ]. In today’s digital world, the Metaverse, one of the new communication tools, has entered our lives as a new technological concept and gradually developed with the penetration of the internet into all areas of our lives [ 2 ]. Metaverse is also used in the field of education by providing interaction via avatars [ 3 , 4 ]. Thanks to this technology, the Metaverse, which exists in many areas of our lives, has provided an innovation for the whole world in terms of switching to distance education and discussing its importance during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 2 ]. Metaverse, still a developing multidimensional technology, is expected to have a wide range of uses in the future [ 5 ]. Thus, being aware of the awareness and opinions of students who first use innovative technologies regarding these technologies enables them to use the Metaverse world most effectively and efficiently [ 6 ]. Another concept closely related to the Metaverse is digital technology [ 7 ].

Digital technology alters individuals’ lifestyles and activities, influencing how they communicate and manage their time [ 7 ]. Adapting to, learning or using new technological developments helps young individuals to play an active role in society [ 7 ]. [ 8 ].

The new generation has no worries about using and adapting to digital technology [ 8 ]. However, it has been predicted that when digital technology is compatible with the daily routines of the new generation, their effort to learn this technology will increase [ 8 ]. This change and digitalization have also contributed to advances in the field of education. Thanks to digital technologies, students and educators can interact with their classmates, and access learning resources anytime and anywhere [ 9 ]. Health science students’ experiencing, internalizing, and using developing digital technologies rapidly before and after graduation is of great importance. Considering that they will take place in the delivery of health services with augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), extended reality (XR), artificial intelligence and Metaverse technologies, it is thought that determining their views on the use of digital technologies and the Metaverse in undergraduate education will affect their use them in the future.

The metaverse was first mentioned in a science fiction novel called “Snow Crash” written by Neal Stephenson in 1992 although it is not a new concept [ 10 ]. [ 10 ].

In the novel, the Metaverse represents a parallel universe made up of computer programs, graphics, and designs, where users can communicate using glasses and headphones [ 10 ].

Later, a Metaverse called OASIS was mentioned in Ready Player One, a recently published novel, and in a movie adapted for the cinema [ 11 , 12 ]. In the novel, the author defined the concept of metaverse as a virtual universe that combines virtual reality, augmented reality and the internet [ 11 ]. The concept of Metaverse refers to the universe where the digital elements of communication tools are gathered together today [ 13 ]. The concept of the Metaverse comes from Ancient Greek words “Meta” which means after and “Verse” which means universe [ 14 ]. [ 14 ]. According to another definition, the virtual world makes it possible to interact with people and digital elements, to communicate as if the users were in the physical world using avatars, and to perform various activities [ 14 ]. Metaverse environment refers to a technology-enabled 3D space that provides interactive experiences. In this environment, technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), virtual worlds (VW), mixed reality (MR) and extended reality (XR) are used [ 15 ]. Several studies are carried out on how the Metaverse is used in the field of health sciences by students [ 3 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Most of these studies were conducted with nursing students [ 3 , 15 ]. In a literature review, Moro emphasized that Metaverse can be used in health science students’ anatomy and physiology courses [ 20 ]. In a systematic review, Gagne et al. determined that Metaverse interventions improved students’ knowledge, self-confidence, participation and satisfaction, and supported their performance [ 15 ]. Nursing students took part in Metaverse-based core nursing skill contents (CNSC) training [ 3 ], Metaverse-based career mentoring program [ 16 ], Metaverse-based schizophrenia nursing simulation program [ 17 ], and Metaverse-based cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training [ 18 ]. Metaverse-based trainings helped students develop their basic nursing skills [ 3 ], had a positive effect on their career decision-making self-efficacy [ 16 ], and improved their CPR performance [ 18 ]. Although several studies have been conducted on Metaverse applications, the number of studies conducted to determine whether students agree to use the Metaverse and whether they have positive opinions of the Metaverse is limited [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. The search for studies conducted with health science students in particular revealed a gap in the literature. Users’ perception of the usefulness of digital technological innovation is an important determinant of technology adoption [ 21 ].

Although examples of educational programs based on metaverse are increasingly implemented and appear in the literature, the determinant of whether the use of digital technologies in education will become widespread or not is the students. Students’ attitudes towards digital technologies or their adoption of digital technologies will pave the way for educators whether they can use this technology in their educational programs. Determining health sciences students’ views on the use of digital technologies and the metaverse is of great importance in the elimination of deficiencies in the existing literature in this field. In particular, there is a need for a comprehensive understanding of the effects of digital technologies and the metaverse on educational processes, on students’ adaptation processes to these innovations, and on their implications for future professional practices. Therefore, studies should be conducted to investigate health sciences students’ attitudes and experiences regarding these issues. Therefore, in order to fill the gap, conducting a study in which health sciences students’ views on digital technology and the use of metaverse are determined gains importance. In this context, in Turkish literature, no studies have been conducted with students of health sciences in which their views on the Metaverse and digital technology were investigated. Therefore, in the present study, the aim was to determine the views of students of health sciences about the use of metaverse and digital technology in undergraduate education.

Study design

This cross-sectional and descriptive study was conducted online using Google Forms between January 2023 and May 2023 [ 25 ].

The population of the study comprised 1433 students attending Izmir Bakırçay University Faculty of Health Sciences. The sample size was determined as 304 students in the OpenEpi Program with a 95% confidence interval. The e-survey was conducted between January 2023 and May 2023 with 289 students who volunteered to participate in the study. The participation rate was 95.06%. The inclusion criteria of the study were as follows: being a health sciences student at the aforementioned university, and volunteering to participate in the study. The exclusion criterion was as follows: not completing the online data collection forms.

Data collection

The data were collected using the “Students’ Descriptive Information Form”, “Metaverse Scale” and “Attitude Scale for Digital Technology”. To protect the confidentiality of the data, data was collected via “Google forms”. It took respondents approximately 5 minutes to respond to the survey form.

The e-survey link was sent to WhatsApp student groups, including only health sciences students, as a reminder once a week between January 2023 and May 2023. Of the students, those who volunteered to participate in the survey were asked to fill in the online questionnaire. Each student was allowed to complete the online questionnaire only once.

Students’ Descriptive Information Form: The form the researchers prepared in line with the literature includes 16 items questioning the students’ sex, age, year at school, department, daily internet usage time, experience of using digital tools in classes, use of wearable technology, will to use the Metaverse, experience of the Metaverse application or platform, and social networks they use.

Metaverse Scale (MS): The MS was used to determine students’ knowledge of, attitudes towards and awareness of the Metaverse. Süleymanoğulları et al. performed the validity and reliability of the MS in 2022 [ 12 ]. The MS consists of 15 items and the following 4 sub-dimensions: technology, digitalization, social and lifestyle. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of the MS was measured as 0.813 in Süleymanoğulları et al.’s study, and 0.866 in the present study. Responses given to the items are rated on a 5-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The lowest and highest possible scores that can be obtained from the MS are 15 and 75, respectively. As the scores obtained from the MS increase, so does the level of knowledge and awareness about the Metaverse (The higher the score obtained from the MS the higher level of knowledge and awareness about the Metaverse is) [ 12 ].

Attitude Scale for Digital Technology (ASDT): Cabı E. developed the ASDT in 2016 to determine students’ attitudes towards digital technology [ 26 ]. The ASDT consists of 8 sub-dimensions and 39 items whose responses are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (I totally /strongly disagree) to 5 (I totally /strongly agree). The higher the score obtained from the ASDT is the more favorable the student’s attitude towards digital technology is. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of the ASDT was measured as 0.90 in Cabı E.’s study, and 0.937 in the present study.

Statistical analysis

The study data were analyzed using the IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for Windows 25.0. While numbers, percentages, arithmetic mean and standard deviation were used for the descriptive characteristics of the students, data on their daily internet use time, digital tool usage experience in courses, use of wearable technology, will to use the Metaverse, Metaverse application or platform experience, and social networks they use were used to measure their knowledge of the Metaverse. The Kolmogorov Smirnov test was used to check whether the data were normally distributed. Because the data were normally distributed, the independent samples t-test was used to compare the relationship between the independent variables and the mean scores obtained from the Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology. The Multivariate ANOVA analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to compare the mean scores the participating students obtained from the Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology in terms of their departments and year at school. The Pearson correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship between the mean scores the participating students obtained from the Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

The mean age of the students participating in the study was 20.75 ± 1.77 years. The mean duration of daily internet use was 6.04 ± 3.22 h. Of the students, 73% (n: 211) were women, 51.9% (n: 150) were attending the nursing department and 36.7% (n: 106) were second-year students (Table 1 ).

Of the students participating in the study, 70.6% (n: 204) had heard about the concept of the Metaverse, 88.9% (n: 257) perceived their level of knowledge on the Metaverse inadequate, 83.4% (n: 241) stated that the use of the Metaverse in the courses would increase the efficiency of the course, 86.9% (n: 251) thought that the Metaverse would make their lives easier, 53.3% (n: 145) did not feel ready to use the Metaverse, 87.9% (n: 254) had no experience in using the Metaverse platforms or applications, 72.7% (n: 210) stated that Metaverse platforms could be used instead of virtual classrooms, 63% (n: 182) experienced the use of digital technology in classes, 95.8% (n: 277) stated that digital technology should be used in classes, 92.7% (n: 268) stated that digital technologies facilitated learning, and 92% (n: 266) thought that the use of digital technologies in courses would increase efficiency (Table 2 ).

The mean score the participating students obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology were 53.54 ± 9.00 and135.98 ± 21.28, respectively. There was no significant difference between the students from different departments and grades in terms of the mean scores they obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology Scale ( p > 0.05) (Table 3 ).

The comparison of the participants’ views on the Metaverse using the Metaverse Scale demonstrated that the mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who believed that using the Metaverse in classes would increase efficiency (t: 5.130, p: 0.000) was statistically significant (Table 3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who had the view that the metaverse would make our lives easier (t: 6.412, p: 0.000) was statistically significant (Table 3 ). The mean scores obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who felt they were ready to use Metaverse (t: 3.976, p: 0.000) and those who were experienced in using Metaverse platforms or applications (t: 2.173, p: 0.031) were statistically significant (Table 3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who agreed that the Metaverse platform could be used instead of virtual classrooms (t: 4.531, p: 0.000) was statistically significant (Table 3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who agreed that digital technology should be used in courses (t: 3.143, p: 0.002) was statistically significant (Table 3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who agreed with the view that the use of digital technology in courses would make learning easier (t: 2.216, p: 0.027) was statistically significant (Table 3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who agreed with the view that the use of digital technology in courses would increase efficiency (t: 2.898, p: 0.004) was statistically significant (Table 3 ).

In the present study, the aim was to determine the health sciences students’ views about the use of the Metaverse and digital technology in undergraduate education.

There has been a significant increase in the use of technology in all areas of our lives in recent years [ 27 ]. Using digital technologies as an effective pedagogical tool to improve the teaching and learning processes facilitates learning [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Therefore, it is important to know health sciences students’ views of digital technologies and to develop appropriate infrastructures so that they can keep up with today’s changing digital norms.

In the present study, the participating students’ mean duration of daily internet use was 6.04 ± 3.22 h. In İlk’s study (2022), 44.5% of the students stated that they used the internet 3–4 h a day [ 29 ]. In another study carried out with the Z generation, young people spent 1.5–4 h on the computer by watching movies, TV series, etc., which suggests that the mean duration of daily internet use is similar in the similar age groups [ 30 ].

In the present study, of the students, more than half had heard of the concept of metaverse before, the vast majority did not perceive their knowledge of the Metaverse adequate and thought that the Metaverse could facilitate their daily life, more than half did not feel they were ready to use Metaverse, and almost all did not have experience of using the Metaverse platforms or applications. The students’ perceiving their Metaverse knowledge level insufficient and not feeling ready to use metaverse platforms can be explained by the fact that they did not have any experience in using the Metaverse platforms. Similarly, in another study, 70.6% of the students had never used the Metaverse before [ 24 ]. In order for education to keep up with current digital technologies, students should be more experienced in these platforms. As the students become more experienced, the aspects of the use of digital technologies in education that should be developed or adapted will become clearer.

One of the surprising results of the present study was that although the students were not experienced in using the Metaverse platform, the majority of them stated that the Metaverse could be used instead of virtual classroom platforms. This was probably because they had heard of the concept of the Metaverse before. In another study conducted with students, it was stated that the Metaverse platform facilitated communication between students during the courses and ensured collaborative learning [ 31 ]. In the present study, the students stated that the use of Metaverse in the courses would increase the efficiency of the course although they did not perceive their knowledge of the Metaverse sufficient. As in the present study, in Al-nawaiseh et al.’s study (2023), the use of Metaverse in the classroom setting helped learning [ 31 ]. In another study, 67.6% of the students wanted to use the Metaverse in the classroom and 44.1% of them stated that the Metaverse would ensure permanent and meaningful learning in the classroom [ 24 ]. The results of the present study suggest that the students had opinions favoring the use of metaverse in classes. In a study in which higher education students’ views of the Metaverse were questioned, most of the students believed that the Metaverse would help their learning better [ 23 ].

In the present study, more than half of the students experienced the use of digital technology in the courses and almost all of them thought that digital technology should be used in classes, that digital technologies would facilitate learning and that the use of digital technologies in the classes would increase efficiency. The widespread use of digital platforms in universities [ 29 ] can be explained by the fact that students have the opportunity to experience the positive contributions of digital technology use to their learning processes. In another study conducted with health science students, 68% of the students used digital technology for learning purposes [ 28 ]. However, several problems such as understanding, adapting and designing educational systems in accordance with current technological trends have arisen in the integration of digital technologies into education [ 32 ]. While lack of experience and low digital infrastructure capacity are among institutional problems [ 32 ], the problem experienced students is their digital literacy levels [ 33 ], and problems experienced by trainers are that they lack experience and that their roles in the classroom change from being educational to being facilitators and guides [ 33 ]. However, the area where digital technologies are most effective in education is that they help create collaborative and cooperative learning environments [ 33 ].

In the present study, the mean score the students obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale was 53 out of 75 points. This result can be interpreted as the participants’ knowledge and awareness levels regarding the Metaverse were high. Similarly, in another study, the sports science students’ mean score for the awareness of the concept of the Metaverse was above the average [ 4 ]. In the present study, the mean score the students obtained from the Attitude Scale for Digital Technology was 135.98 out of 195 points. This finding can be interpreted as the students displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology. Workie et al. (2023), stated that 46.8% of the students displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology [ 28 ]. In another study, the students whose attitudes towards digital technology were positive were more likely to use digital technology [ 34 ]. In the current study, a weak positive correlation was determined between the students’ attitudes towards digital technology and their level of knowledge and awareness about the metaverse. This finding can be interpreted as the higher the level of knowledge and awareness of the Metaverse, the more favorable the students’ attitude towards digital technology.

In the present study, as in the literature [ 4 ], there was no significant difference between the students from different departments and grades in terms of the mean scores they obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology Scale ( p > 0.05). However, the sex variable led to a significant difference between the mean scores the students obtained from the overall Attitude Scale for Digital Technology (t: 3,424, p: 0,001). As in the present study, in two other studies, the sex variable led to a significant difference between the students’ attitude towards digital technology [ 29 , 30 ]. According to the 2022 data released by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TÜİK), male individuals between the ages of 16–24 years displayed more favorable attitudes towards digital technology than did female individuals [ 35 ].

In the present study, those who thought that using the Metaverse and digital technology in courses would increase productivity, those who thought that the Metaverse would make our lives easier, those who felt ready to use the Metaverse, those who had experience of using the Metaverse platforms or applications, and those who agreed that the Metaverse platform could be used instead of virtual classrooms, and those who agreed that the use of digital technology in courses would facilitate learning and increase efficiency obtained higher scores from the Metaverse Scale. There was a statistically significant difference between their scores and the other students’ scores ( p < 0.05). Similarly, in Talan and Kalınkara’s study (2022), the students agreed with the view that the Metaverse had pedagogical benefits [ 24 ]. The mean score obtained from the Attitude Scale for Digital Technology by the participants who had experience in using digital technology in the courses was statistically significantly higher than was that of the participants who did not have experience (t:3.057, p:0.002). Digital technology is critical for the academic performance development of students [ 28 ], and their attitudes are positively affected as they experience digital technology, which suggests that positive views on the use of Metaverse and digital technologies in education are associated with higher scores and more positive attitudes towards these technologies. It can be concluded that the integration of digital technologies and the Metaverse into education can improve students’ productivity and their learning experience.

The present study has some limitations. One of the limitations is that it is a cross-sectional study. Another limitation is that the findings were obtained from a single institution. Thus, the results obtained from the present study are applicable only to the students surveyed and they cannot be generalized to all health sciences students. The other limitation is that there was no educational initiative about Metaverse in the university where the study was carried. To overcome these limitations, studies with larger samples including health sciences students studying at different institutions both in Turkey and in other countries of the world can be carried out, and action research can be conducted on this topic. Education policies can be developed to promote the use of Metaverse and digital technologies, which are considered innovative approaches used in educational programs, and educators can be encouraged to participate in faculty development programs to use these technologies.

In the present study, it was aimed to determine the digital technology-related attitudes of health sciences students attending a public university about metaverse and their awareness of the Metaverse. Therefore, as the topic of the study is the first conducted with health science students, it is expected to fill the knowledge gap regarding digital technology attitudes and Metaverse awareness of those students. It was determined that health sciences students displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology and their level of awareness of the Metaverse was above the average. It is recommended that educators in the field of health sciences should provide students with appropriate technology-enriched educational environments by using the data on digital technology and Metaverse obtained in the present study.

Data availability

The data associated with the paper are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Sezer, H., Gül, A. Health sciences students’ perspectives on metaverse and digital technology use: cross-sectional descriptive study. BMC Nurs 23 , 656 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02309-w

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The dawn of ethnomicrobiology: an interdisciplinary research field on interactions between humans and microorganisms

César Ojeda-Linares 1 , 2 ,
Alejandro Casas 3 ,
Tania González-Rivadeneira 4 &
Gary P. Nabhan 5

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume 20 , Article number: 86 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Ethnobiologists commonly analyze local knowledge systems related to plants, animals, fungi, and ecosystems. However, microbes (bacteria, yeasts, molds, viruses, and other organisms), often considered invisible in their interactions with humans, are often neglected. Microorganisms were the earliest life forms on Earth, and humans have interacted with them throughout history. Over time, humans have accumulated ecological knowledge about microbes through attributes such as smell, taste, and texture that guide the management of contexts in which microorganisms evolve. These human-microbe interactions are, in fact, expressions of biocultural diversity. Thus, we propose that ethnomicrobiology is a distinct interdisciplinary field within ethnobiology that examines the management practices and knowledge surrounding human-microbe interactions, along with the theoretical contributions that such an approach can offer.

We reviewed scientific journals, books, and chapters exploring human-microbe relationships. Our search included databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and specific journal websites, using keywords related to ethnomicrobiology and ethnozymology. To categorize activities involving deliberate human-microbial interactions, we examined topics such as fermentation, pickling, food preservation, silaging, tanning, drying, salting, smoking, traditional medicine, folk medicine, agricultural practices, composting, and other related practices.

Our research identified important precedents for ethnomicrobiology through practical and theoretical insights into human-microbe interactions, particularly in their impact on health, soil, and food systems. We also found that these interactions contribute to biodiversity conservation and co-evolutionary processes. This emerging interdisciplinary field has implications for food ecology, public health, and the biocultural conservation of hidden microbial landscapes and communities. It is essential to explore the socioecological implications of the interwoven relationships between microbial communities and humans. Equally important is the promotion of the conservation and recovery of this vast biocultural diversity, along with sustainable management practices informed by local ecological knowledge.

Recognizing the dawn of ethnomicrobiology is essential as the field evolves from a descriptive to a more theoretical and integrative biological approach. We emphasize the critical role that traditional communities have played in conserving food, agriculture, and health systems. This emerging field highlights that the future of ethnobiological sciences will focus not on individual organisms or cultures, but on the symbiosis between microorganisms and humans that has shaped invisible but often complex biocultural landscapes.

Ethnobiology is a field of research that encompasses complex bodies of knowledge, cosmologies, actions, and interactions between people and biodiversity, operating at the intersection of several scientific disciplines that address both cultural and biological issues. It therefore involves the study of highly diverse, dynamic, and historical relationships between people, biota, and environments [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. To date, much of this research has focused on terrestrial vascular plants, macromycetes, vertebrates, and insects. However, there is increasing interest in traditional knowledge related to other taxonomic groups that contribute to biodiversity and their interactions with cultural diversity [ 4 , 5 ]. One of the central goals of ethnobiology is to integrate knowledge systems from diverse stakeholders, which is especially relevant when addressing socioecological challenges [ 6 ]. As a result, this interdisciplinary approach has evolved through different epistemological frameworks and historical stages [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ].

Ethnobiology has been shaped by diverse biological perspectives, with integrative strategies related to knowledge systems varying across cultures worldwide [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Historically, attempts to explore the complex relationship between biodiversity and cultural practices have often focused on specific taxonomic groups. Ethnobotany, for example, focuses on human-plant interactions [ 7 , 11 , 12 ], while ethnozoology focuses on human-animal relationships [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Although less studied, organisms such as fungi (especially macro fungi) have also been studied by ethnomycology, which examines their role in food, medicine, recreation, and household economies [ 18 , 19 ].

In contrast, the relationship between humans and the microbial world has received relatively little theoretical attention, even though microorganisms are the earliest and most diverse organisms on the planet. Microbes play a critical role in human food and health systems, and their activities and byproducts are often experienced through smell, taste, texture or other attributes. Throughout Earth's history and the development of civilizations, a complex, multilateral relationship has developed between humans, the environment, and microbial communities [ 20 ]. Despite their vast diversity, microbes have been largely overlooked in ethnobiological studies, even though they are integral to the ecological interactions that many ethnobiologists study.

The term “ ethnomicrobiology ” is rarely used in scientific literature, and evolutionary ethnomicrobiology has yet to be formally established. The term was first introduced by Souza [ 21 ] in a study of traditional agricultural practices in Mexico, where local people from Puebla and Morelos managed Phaseolus species and their associated Rhizobium bacteria. These authors found that farmers were aware of how their practices positively affected soil microbial communities and crop yield, drawing attention to an often-overlooked aspect of ethnobiology. Subsequently, Tamang [ 22 , 23 , 24 ] defined ethnomicrobiology as a field focused on understanding the indigenous knowledge used to produce culturally and organoleptically acceptable fermented foods through natural fermentation. However, this definition may be too narrow, given the wide range of processes involving human-microbial interactions. Other authors have proposed the term “ ethnozymology ” to describe the science of fermentation in traditional diets, emphasizing the integration of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) into fermentation practices, using native, autochthonous microbiota from plant ingredients and other natural sources [ 25 ]. This approach highlights the role of TEK in guiding the dynamics of microbial communities associated with fermented products. However, these concepts may be limited when considering the full range of human-microbe interactions.

The primary goal of this work is to review the existing literature on the diverse range of human-microbe interactions, in order to establish ethnomicrobiology as a cohesive field that unifies concepts and develops theoretical and methodological frameworks for studying these relationships. We aim to contextualize the historical and dynamic interactions between microorganisms—whether at the level of population, community, species, or strain levels—and human activities. As an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary field, ethnomicrobiology incorporates multiple theoretical and methodological perspectives to study the relationships between microorganisms (including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and archaea) and human cultures (Fig. 1 ). We recognize the critical role that microorganisms have played throughout human history and their ongoing influence in areas such as food, health, and various production systems. This approach provides ethnobiologists with valuable research tools to analyze how different cultures perceive and interact with microorganisms, how microbial communities are conserved, maintained, and utilized in different contexts, and how these interactions shape the interplay between the micro and macro worlds.

Ethnomicrobiology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary field that bridges ethnobiological studies (red color below) and microbiological sciences (yellow color above). Rather than being treated as an independent branch of ethnobiology, ethnomicrobiology requires the collaboration of various biological and social sciences to unravel the complex and intricate effects of human-microbial interactions (all the colors in between the coalition of major disciplines). We envision ethnomicrobiology as a vibrant, woven textile, where different disciplines intertwine to propose a unified concept and diverse perspectives on human-microbe interactions across ecological, cultural, economic, functional, evolutionary, chemical, and other approaches. This emerging field and all the perspectives involved allow us to rethink the historical and dynamic relationships between microorganisms and human activities in a myriad of ways (Image by Alejandra Cruz Rodriguez)

Ethnomicrobiology is based on the ethnobiological goal of understanding and reflecting on local knowledge about microorganisms and the products that result from these interactions. The emerging ethnomicrobiological framework seeks to recognize and value the skilled individuals who manage the invisible microbial world, whom we will refer to as microbial managers. It also seeks to move beyond stereotypes that frame indigenous peoples’ knowledge of biotic relationships as primarily visual and to open new ways of exploring biodiversity through other senses.

In this work, we explore the global developments and trends in ethnomicrobiology. This review offers a novel and original perspective that addresses the emerging growth of this field within the ethnosciences and its future directions. We conducted a systematic review of scientific journals, books, and book chapters that address human practices or traditional knowledge in the management of microbial communities in soil, fermentation, and health. We include peer-reviewed works of qualitative and quantitative research, reviews, and dissertations. We also include studies from the last 30 years, unless older studies are foundational or critical for the review. We limit our search to studies published in languages not covered by the research team's language skills, opinion pieces, letters to the editor, or non-peer-reviewed articles. Our search included articles from international databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed, and specific journal websites. We focused on terms related to ethnomicrobiology, ethnozymology, fermentation, traditional knowledge, microbial management, fermentation and cultural practices, and microbes.

In this review, we emphasize the implication of ethnomicrobiology in shaping both microbiological and ethnobiological research agendas. The following sections explore a wide range of activities that involve intentional human-microbial interactions, including practices designed to preserve, promote, maintain, or eliminate microbial groups. These practices encompass food preservation techniques such as fermentation, pickling, drying, salting, and smoking, as well as practices intended to avoid microbes, such as tanning. In addition, we will examine microbial management activities in soil, including agricultural practices, composting, and geophagy. We also discuss the role of microorganisms in traditional and folk medicine, where microbial management is integral. In addition, we highlight the relevance of ethnomicrobiology to evolutionary studies, particularly by integrating microbial research trends with evolutionary frameworks such as the domestication of microbial fermentation environments, niche construction, and the co-evolution of microbes with domesticated plants. Finally, we address the social-critical dimensions of ethnomicrobiology, emphasizing its importance for understanding broader societal and ecological dynamics.

The relevance of ethnomicrobiology to the microbiological and ethnobiological research agenda

Do humans have microbial blindness, or do we rely on visual cues to the detriment of our other sensory data collection? Certainly, we live in a microbial-dependent world; without microbes, important geochemical cycles such as those of nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus would collapse, decomposition would stop, and no animal (including humans) would be able to produce and digest its food, and life as we know it would truly cease to exist [ 26 ]. It is common for many people to associate microorganisms with agents that cause diseases in plants and animals. However, throughout history, humans have used microorganisms for a wide range of activities. Our relationship with these diverse organisms is both intimate and vital, affecting various aspects of our daily lives, including functions of which we are often unaware [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. The formal study of microbial communities only began after technological advances in microscopy and the pioneering work of scientists such as Koch, Pasteur, and De Bary in the late nineteenth century. These advances stimulated interest in microbiology as a scientific discipline. However, long before microbes were understood, human cultures around the world engaged in activities such as salting, smoking, roasting, lyophilization, nixtamalization, tanning, and fermentation of foods, beverages, and dyes, all of which involved microbial management processes [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 ].

Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, including unicellular, multicellular, or acellular forms [ 38 , 39 ]. It includes both eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, as well as prokaryotes, viruses, and prions. Although prions and viruses are not considered living organisms in the strict sense, they are part of the microbiological agenda. Microbiology also serves as an umbrella for several subfields, including virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology, immunology, and zymology, all of which study different aspects of microorganisms. The interactions between humans and the microbial world have revolutionized life, particularly in medicine through the use of antibiotics, and vaccines, reducing the incidence of infectious diseases [ 40 , 41 ] (in Fig. 1 , related disciplines of microbiology shown in yellow). Microbiology has also made significant contributions to fields such as environmental management, genetics, and molecular biology (in Fig. 1 , related disciplines of microbiology shown in green), but perhaps its most profound impact has been in food production and biotechnology, evident in the wide range of products such as wine, bread, and cheese, among others [ 42 , 43 , 44 ].

Despite significant advances in microbiology, the vast empirical knowledge of microbial processes held by traditional societies has often been overlooked. Microbes have been understood and managed in all human cultures for centuries [ 45 ]. Many communities engage in agricultural and culinary practices that directly shape microbial communities in both soil and food [ 46 , 47 ]. The diversity of fermented foods resulting from these practices is critical not only for human nutrition but also as a form of cultural expression [ 48 ]. Moreover, these interactions extend beyond food, encompassing traditional health practices, which often involve microbial activities [ 48 ]. A deeper understanding of local knowledge systems related to microbial management may reveal microorganisms as an integral part of local biodiversity with significant health benefits.

One approach often used by ethnobiologists is the biocultural perspective. If we consider biodiversity to include the vast diversity of microorganisms, it becomes crucial to recognize these microorganisms as agents that establish relationships with human groups and cultures. Integrating these biological entities into ethnobiology has significant implications, especially since human interactions typically involve entire microbial communities, populations, strains, or even entire microbial ecosystems, rather than just individual species. While there are prominent examples of interactions with specific microorganisms, such as those used in beer production or the use of Aspergillus in cheese-making, these relationships often reflect broader ecological dynamics that involve multiple senses and extend beyond mere visual perception. Understanding our relationships with microorganisms requires attention to these multisensory interactions. In addition, the management and production of artifacts to manipulate microbial groups play a critical role in this complex web of interactions between living organisms, objects, and humans [ 49 ].

Incorporating microbiology into ethnobiology is critical for understanding ecological knowledge, cultural meanings, and the sustainable management of microbial biodiversity. It also provides insights into how human actions shape microbial communities and influence selection or domestication processes that favor certain microbial groups over others. In addition, studying the effects of human management on plant and animal microbiomes highlights the interconnectedness between macroorganisms and microorganisms. Ethnomicrobiology also opens discussions on ethical issues such as the use of microorganisms, bioprospecting, biopiracy, and intellectual property rights. Moreover, it serves as a reminder that we live in the “Microbiocene”, an era in which we must acknowledge our dependence on these organisms, even if we often experience them primarily through their “osmocosm” (the scents of the universe) [ 50 ].

Identifying activities that involve deliberate actions on human-microbial interactions

Historically, ethnobiological studies of plants and animals have explored a wide range of topics, including behavior, use, cultural transitions, social relationships, and their ecological and evolutionary implications [ 7 , 51 ]. Plant and fungus collectors, managers, and domesticators possess extensive knowledge of the taxonomy, biology, and ecology of these species, just as hunters, ranchers, and breeders do for animal groups [ 17 ]. Local experts play a critical role in preserving and transmitting ecological knowledge about human interactions with biota [ 52 , 53 ]. Similarly, people around the world engage in a variety of practices to manage microbial communities. Whether to maintain, promote, restrict, or eliminate them, these human practices represent diverse forms of microbial management (Fig. 2 ). Today, different cultures have different relationships with microorganisms, which we will outline in the following section.

Activities that involve microbial management. Fermentation is a universal process used to produce foods, beverages, dyes, and other products. In these processes, specific microbes are managed and selected to produce desired products, while other microorganisms that may cause spoilage are intentionally avoided. Preservation practices involve physical methods such as drying, smoking, salting, and tanning to restrict microbial communities that could lead to spoilage. Soil management practices are widely used around the world, to encourage beneficial microbes that improve soil health and ultimately agricultural yields. On the health front, many diseases are linked to imbalances in the microbial communities within the human body. Folk and traditional medicine has long employed practices to maintain balance within these communities. In addition, the increase in health concerns in recent years has highlighted the importance of a healthy diet, particularly the consumption of fermented products, in maintaining microbial balance. (Images created using Copilot in Windows AI)

Fermentation for food and beverages

Fermentation is perhaps the most tangible and oldest technique that allows humans to perceive and interact with the microbial world in their daily lives, even without seeing the agents responsible for this transformation. Fermentation is a metabolic process carried out by various organisms to produce energy. Microbial groups such as bacteria and yeasts convert organic compounds such as carbohydrates through enzymatic reactions (mainly in the absence of oxygen) into simpler molecules such as alcohol or a wide variety of organic acids [ 54 , 55 ]. Fermentation has been used as a common process in the production, preservation, enhancement, and transformation of various foods and beverages [ 54 , 55 ]. However, other products such as textiles, dyes, compost, and many other common commodities undergo fermentation processes [ 56 , 57 ]. In the food industry, fermentation has facilitated the increasing production and diversification of foods and beverages; in fact, it is estimated that approximately an average of 50–400 g per capita of fermented foods and alcoholic beverages are consumed daily worldwide, accounting for approximately 5–40% of the total daily food intake by humans worldwide [ 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ]. These products are not only essential to the human diet but have also played a historically significant role in shaping the socio-economic, cultural, and identity aspects of human life [ 59 , 62 , 63 , 64 ]. Thus, these products should not be considered as commodities alone, but as part of the complex cultural contexts in which they are embedded.

Microbiological studies have generally assumed that traditional fermentations capture wild and mostly uncontrolled organisms, resulting in heterogeneous and unpredictable outcomes for biotechnological purposes or even products that may endanger human health [ 65 ]. However, several studies have documented complex knowledge systems by which people manage the effects of such heterogeneity through practices such as controlling the room temperature, covering the fermentation containers, adding specific plants that contain enzymes for food fermentation processes, or as other sources of more specific microbial communities [ 66 , 67 , 68 ]. In addition, some producers have conditioned or constructed specific fermentation rooms, containers, and other facilities that play an important role in promoting the collection of microbial communities and other practices that help maintain them by avoiding cleaning chemicals and soap [ 69 , 70 ].

Fermentation can be accomplished using inoculants, also known as starters or starter cultures, which are established microbial consortia added to initiate, enhance, or drive the fermentation process [ 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 ]. Similarly, backslopping is the practice of using a portion of a previous batch of fermented food or beverage to inoculate a new batch. This is commonly done in processes such as sourdough bread making or yogurt production [ 76 , 77 ]. The purpose is to inoculate an old batch to start the fermentation process with new substrates by introducing those beneficial microorganisms from a previous batch [ 71 , 76 ]. All these techniques of fermentation represent strategies to gather microbial communities, but in between, several practices are performed by producers to obtain accepted fermented products. However, the cues or motives to use one or another are a topic to be studied in numerous contexts to obtain signals of possible trends in the management of microorganisms or to understand that practices are unique to each cultural group/microbial manager or fermented product [ 61 ].

Fermentation introduces what we call "gastronomic plasticity," which refers to the ability of a culinary tradition to adapt, evolve, and incorporate new ingredients and techniques. This flexibility allows the tradition to respond to dynamic changes in resource availability, cultural exchange, and consumer preferences by expanding the range of flavors, textures, smells, aromas, and other qualities in the final product. However, how people “collect sensory attributes” and how they manage contexts that influence the invisible world to achieve the desired properties is a major challenge to study within an ethnomicrobiological framework.

This could be a complex issue as the answers could be variable depending on the region, the environment, the products, the human culture, and the producers and the practices used. Nevertheless, there is a remarkable ability of producers to recognize and remember or even name certain smells, tastes, colors, and textures of fermented products by the producers. For example, indigenous microbial managers identify the same flavor, texture, and aroma resulting from the presence of endophytic bacteria, such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides , in aguamiel , pulque , comiteco, and certain types of mezcal from the Mexican Altiplano as they do in Agave salmiana Otto ex Salm–Dyck spirits [ 78 ]; this may be due to the common use of pulque and its associated microbial communities as starter cultures for other fermented products [ 62 ]. This idea has been proposed by several authors who seek to identify a “microbiology of desire” through which some microbial consortia could be selected for their specific organoleptic profile [ 79 ].

There are outstanding studies that address this idea by following the changes in the microbial communities, the odor in the successional process of fermentation, and the functionality of the microbial groups [ 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 ]. There are some clues as to how the microbial community affects the final attribute of the fermented product; however, no information has been reported on the clues that producers recognize when the fermentation needs to be controlled.

To address these complex bodies of knowledge and practices, the ethnomicrobiological approach can be used to identify techniques that managers apply to achieve specific sensory attributes in their fermented products. It can be used to understand the choice of containers or how they design the facilities to carry out the fermentation. Also, different information can be obtained through ethnographic studies of flavors and how they categorize the different flavors, odors, and textures, but also this can be contrasted with techniques such as Solid-Phase Micro-Extraction (SPME)-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy (GC/MS), which has been widely used to qualitatively and quantitatively determine the volatile compounds responsible for aroma and flavor. It should also be accompanied by the characterization of the microbial community present in the product. In this sense, the interdisciplinary combination of different approaches and types of information, such as qualitative and quantitative, could bring theoretical and practical insights crucial to identify the selection and domestication process of microbial communities and specific strains and mechanisms to guarantee the viability of this microbial world.

Retting: yarning of fermented fibers

Fermentation is also a fundamental process for organic materials and has been used as a practical technique to process and obtain specific quality fibers. Retting is used to describe the soaking or wetting of flax, hemp, or other stalked fiber plants, as well as “coir” fibers from coconut shells, cassava tubers, and other fibrous plant materials [ 84 ]. Retting generally begins as a spontaneous fermentation that digests pectin and other compounds, thereby releasing the fibers and making them available for further applications such as rope, yarn, paper, and many other products [ 84 ]. In countries such as Mexico, the production of fibers by fermentation is a traditional practice that has been documented but remains relatively understudied. For example, fibers are produced by fermentation of the inner bark of the jonote tree ( Heliocarpus appendiculatus ). Although this practice is now largely abandoned, it remains important in certain regions in the southern region of Mexico, particularly in the Sierra Norte de Puebla by the Nahua and Otomi ethnic groups, and in Veracruz, where it is still practiced by the Totonac groups [ 85 , 86 , 87 ]. The characterization of the production practices has not been finely detailed and less is known about the microbial community, nor the cues that producers recognize to obtain the optimal quality of the fibers. However, the general process aims to remove the slime through a long fermentation process of eight days, then producers start to obtain fibers that are resistant and have a long durability [ 85 , 86 , 87 ].

Dyes: coloring by fermentation

Before industrialization and the development of synthetic dyes, many tinctures were traditionally derived from plants and minerals. Today, many of the natural dye-producing plants and practices are still struggling against cultural homogenization and shifting to industrial dyes [ 88 , 89 ]. It is astonishing how many plants and practices have been poorly recorded and lost just for dye production. Historically, one of the most popular herbaceous plants used for dye production is woad ( Isatis tinctoria L.), which is used in Asia and Europe for traditional cloth dyeing through the extraction of indigo [ 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 ], while in other regions such as Peru, Mexico, Central America, the Philippines, and Indonesia the production of indigo pigment is mainly obtained from Indigofera suffruticosa .

Traditionally, indigo is produced by harvesting the leaves and grinding them in mills to produce a dense paste, which is then fermented [ 94 , 95 ]. Fermentation practices for indigo production vary from region to region. In European locations, fermentation typically lasts 10 to 15 days, with variations depending on temperature and other factors. In other cases, the water is replaced with a mixture of water and urine, lime, or wine [ 94 , 95 ]. Although these plants were important in the production of dyes, the knowledge of how to make them was almost lost. Today an increasing demand for natural dyes has raised awareness of the need to maintain the production of these pigments using traditional methods [ 96 , 97 , 98 ]. Fermentation is a delicate part of the indigo reduction process [ 92 ]. Several practices are used to control indigo reduction, the most common being maintaining the fermentation temperature, but also, the use of alkaline agents such as wood ash, slaked lime, or potash [ 94 ]. At this stage, it is possible to obtain different hues by using different proportions of these components [ 94 ].

Color is important in human social and religious life, as part of clothing, ornaments, art, food, and drink; the pigments of animal, vegetable, and mineral origin are all valuable resources. In Mexico, for example, knowledge of the coloring properties of plant parts such as roots stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits [ 99 ], and animals such as cochineal ( Dactylopius coccus ) and the purple snail ( Plicopurpura pansa ) was vast and is being lost with time. In Mexico, 541 plant species have been registered for artisanal use, of which at least 90 have been registered for dyeing applications [ 100 , 101 , 102 ]. For example, the production of indigo in some Mexican localities requires specific practices to obtain darker shades of blue. To achieve this, the producers carry out a controlled fermentation process in clay jugs that lasts 3 to 6 months. The powdered indigo is then mixed with water, rotten agave leaves ( Agave atrovirens ), and urine from women or babies who have been fed with a special diet in the preceding days [ 103 ]. After proper fermentation, the dye is obtained and ready for use. Wool or cotton is dipped into the wort and may be dyed several times to achieve the desired shade [ 102 , 103 ].

Such a delicate and complex process was mainly carried out by the specialized dyers in a completely empirical way, which became the “secrets” of each master, the color, the smell, and even the taste of the bath liquid was, for a long time, the only elements that the dyer could use to control the fermentation and dissolution processes [ 104 , 105 ]. This specialized knowledge can be followed by an ethnomicrobiological approach to fill gaps or gain insight into the differences in microbial communities, depending on the fermentation practices. Although several studies have been conducted to characterize the microbial composition in dye vats around the world [ 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ], few studies have addressed the importance of integrating ecological knowledge for optimal dye production and the changes in microbial communities [ 106 , 107 , 108 ]. Documenting such knowledge is critical to meet the growing demand for natural dyes in textile dyeing operations, which is increasing due to the manufacturers’ awareness of the toxicological data of the materials, the wear of the dyed fabrics, and the effluents generated by dyeing industries [ 109 ].

Ensiling is a widely practiced method of preserving and fermenting green forage from crops and non-crop plants such as weeds and wild grasses, to produce silage, a high-quality feed for livestock, particularly during periods when fresh pasture is unavailable [ 110 , 111 , 112 ]. The process of silage production varies across regions, depending on factors such as plant species, livestock species, and local practices. In general, the process begins with harvesting the crop at its optimal stage of maturity, when it is not too ripe, to ensure the highest nutritional value and ideal moisture content for fermentation [ 110 , 111 , 112 ]. After harvesting, the forage is chopped to increase sugar availability, which optimizes the fermentation process [ 113 , 114 , 115 ]. The chopped forage is then stored using various techniques, most commonly in silos or pits, but traditional methods are also employed to remove air from the forage mass [ 113 , 114 , 115 ]. Once compacted, it is crucial to create an airtight environment to facilitate fermentation. Effective sealing methods include the use of plastic sheeting, tires, or specially designed covers, all aimed at maintaining the anaerobic conditions necessary for fermentation [ 115 ].

Fermentation is primarily driven by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that are naturally present in the plant material or introduced as inoculants. These bacteria acidify the substrate and inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms such as enterobacteria, clostridia, yeasts, and molds. The ensiling process is influenced by several cultural practices and ecological knowledge that vary according to environmental factors [ 116 , 117 , 118 ]. However, many of these practices remain undocumented.

We propose that an ethnomicrobiological framework could provide valuable insights for diversifying and improving ensiling techniques, as well as for managing the microbial diversity associated with silage production. This approach could also provide theoretical contributions to practices involving the selection or domestication of microbial communities related to these products.

Food preservation strategies: microbial management for food security

Since early history, humans have needed to store and preserve food. For example, the ancient Semitic term mouneh, found in languages such as Arabic, is derived from the primary lexeme “mana,” which means to store or preserve for future use. Pre-Biblical Middle Eastern traditions of food preservation included lactic acid fermentation of kefir rubbed into grains, pickling in vinegar, wine, and bitters, and the use of infusions and acidic citrus juices. These traditions also included curing meats and fermenting cheeses, yogurts, kefirs, fruits, and roots throughout the Levant. In Lebanon alone, tens of thousands of Christians, Muslim, and Druze women continue to engage in the seasonal preparation of mouneh to ensure food security in times of crisis, whether due to war, government instability, locust plagues, drought, or other climatic disasters [ 119 ].

Throughout history, the inquisitive human mind has continually innovated and discovered various food preservation systems that have influenced numerous cultures over time [ 120 ]. These preservation techniques have allowed humans to store food for later use, rather than consuming it immediately after killing or harvesting [ 120 ]. Early human preservation practices were primarily based on daily experience, and many traditional methods in developing countries still adhere to this approach [ 119 , 120 ]. Today, there is an increasing demand for fresh foods that retain their natural nutritional value and sensory attributes, such as flavor, odor, texture, and taste. This shift has created challenges for food technologists who are tasked with developing safe, minimally processed foods with minimal or no synthetic additives [ 121 , 122 , 123 ]. Although creating such foods with an adequate shelf-life is complex, traditional microbial managers have long developed practices to minimize microbial contamination in foods, beverages, and other products. These techniques vary widely in different regions of the world and involve actions that either prevent the growth of spoilage-associated microbes or limit microbial activity as much as possible. This is particularly important as foodborne illness is still prevalent in many regions. In addition, microbial management practices often promote beneficial microbes for their positive effects on sensory attributes. As a result, these techniques focus on controlling or inhibiting specific microorganisms or the whole microbial community, while fermentation is used to promote the growth of beneficial microbes and inhibit those associated with spoilage.

Drying is an ancient food preservation technique used in the direct preparation of food products and further processing in various applications in food and non-edible products. Typically, drying is used to convert a surplus crop into a shelf-stable commodity. It has always been valuable to ensure the availability of food and medicine throughout the year. Drying used to be natural and simple because the process was driven by solar energy, but recently several technologies have emerged to speed up the process [ 124 , 125 , 126 ]. Drying preserves the product and can affect the quality of materials such as spices, medicinal plants, herbs, and bioactive enzymes, that can generate value-added compounds during drying [ 125 , 126 , 127 ]. Drying is the process of unbound moisture removal, followed by internal moisture elimination [ 127 ]. Removal of moisture prevents microbial growth [ 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 ].

Freeze-drying is a method of removing water from frozen material by sublimation of ice crystals [ 131 , 132 ]. Although this practice is limited to cold regions, it is a traditional strategy for preserving various foods. For example, in Peru, specific techniques of freeze-drying potatoes ( Solanum tuberosum, S. juzepczukii, S. curtillobum ) are performed to obtain white or black chuño . Chuño is produced mainly from larger bitter potatoes grown outdoors and subjected to this treatment for several days until managers recognize attributes such as a dry sound, or a texture like stones [ 133 , 134 ]. Chuño producers also collect potatoes after freezing at night because sunlight causes the chuño to blacken and lose its most valuable characteristic, its white color [ 135 ]. After freeze-drying, the potatoes are trampled with bare feet to loosen the skin and remove as much liquid as possible [ 133 , 134 ]. The potatoes are then left to dry in the sun for several days, which also limits microbial growth [ 136 ]. The main microorganisms involved in chuño potatoes are Lactobacillus species ( L . sakei , L . casei , L . farciminis , L . brevis , L . fermentum ) and Leuconostoc mesenteroides once chuño is stored. It can be transformed into tocosh (a fermented potato) , and it develops several anti-bacterial properties [ 137 ].

Smoking and roasting

Smoked and roasted foods have played an important role in the human diet and are still widely consumed and locally produced in different regions of the world. Smoking and roasting are among the oldest technological processes used by humans to preserve and enhance food [ 138 ]. Roasting is a food processing technique that uses heat to cook various products evenly, improving their digestibility, palatability, and sensory aspects, such as the development of color, aroma, flavor, phytonutrients, and antioxidants in foods and beverages [ 138 , 139 ]. It also enhances the bioavailability of components through physicochemical and structural modifications of various food matrices [ 140 ]. The process can cook, gelatinize, expand, pop, or puff food materials, making them more accessible, appetizing, and attractive. In addition, heating aims to eliminate or reduce microbial load, natural toxins, and enzyme inhibitors. Roasting modifies the low-water activity in foods, which limits the growth of microbial communities, though several factors, such as unsanitary drying or storage conditions, contaminated equipment or managerial practices, and failure to control foodborne pathogens can still pose risks [ 141 , 142 ].

Smoking food produces a suspension of solid particles in a gaseous phase consisting of air, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and other gases, forming an aerosol [ 137 ]. During the drying process, the water activity of the food decreases, and components such as thymol, formaldehyde, formic, acetic, and benzoic acids, as well as orthocresol, metacresol, paracresol, guaiacol, methylguaiacol, cresol, and xinelone, contribute to bactericidal, antimicrobial, biocidal, fungicidal, and preservative effects [ 137 , 143 , 144 ], thereby limiting the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. Several studies provide evidence of how microbial communities change during smoking [ 137 , 143 , 144 ]. Smoking remains a widely used technique for food preservation worldwide [ 145 , 146 , 147 , 148 ], with various smoked foods such as smoked meat, fish, seafood, cheese, beverages, spices, and flavorings being traditionally produced and still widely used [ 137 , 149 ]. However, practices and processes vary from region to region.

In many traditional cases, smoked products are hung on shelves placed above where the smoke passes, and the smoke may result from the thermal decomposition of wood, although other biological sources such as coconut shells, corn ears, and even paper have also been used [ 137 , 149 , 150 ]. More recently, smoking as a preservation method has been replaced by modern techniques, such as controlled ovens and liquid smoke [ 146 ]. For many of these products, the cues that managers use to ensure a safe smoked product remain unclear, and characterization of the microbial community has, to our knowledge, only been addressed once [ 146 ]. Nevertheless, this may be an interesting topic to explore using an ethnomicrobiological approach.

Pickling is an ancient method of preserving various foods, dating back to at least 2400 BP, including vegetables, fruits, fish, and meat [ 151 ], using brine and/or vinegar. Pickling not only extends the shelf life of foods, but also imparts unique and desirable changes in flavor, texture, and color over time. This method has been an integral part of many human communities and cultures around the world. Pickling has deep roots in several civilizations [ 152 ], and the knowledge has traditionally been passed down orally [ 153 , 154 ]. The main purpose of pickling is to preserve food by promoting an acidic environment, typically using enriched solutions such as vinegar, that control or halt microbial growth, while the food loses as much moisture as possible [ 151 , 155 ]. In addition, brine pickling, in which the preservation is due to salt rather than fermentation, helps to develop different flavors and textures in the pickles [ 151 ]. From an ethnomicrobiological perspective, it is important to document how producers control the raw materials, microbial ecosystems, and fermentation processes, and to document the use of starter cultures that may be useful for promoting an acidic environment [ 156 ] and for producing other metabolites with desirable properties such as heterogeneous aroma compounds, bacteriocins, and exopolysaccharides [ 157 ], or with beneficial health effects [ 158 , 159 , 160 ].

These traditional methods mentioned above are crucial not only for extending the availability of food but also for improving its final quality and providing greater resilience to fluctuations in access. As the world’s population continues to grow, so does the demand for food; however, food loss and waste occur throughout the entire food value chain, from production to handling, transportation, storage, distribution, and consumption [ 159 , 160 ]. Therefore, these traditional practices are essential for preventing food waste. From an ethnomicrobiological perspective, all of these techniques are essential for supporting local food knowledge systems, which are intimately linked to survival and food sovereignty.

Tanning as a leather sourcing practice

Leather tanning is an ancient practice in human technological history, involving the processing of hides and skins to produce various products [ 161 ], including clothing, footwear, handbags, musical instruments, shelter, and upholstery materials, among others [ 161 ]. This process made it possible to use tougher and more durable animal skins for clothing, and before the rise of the paper industry, many manuscripts were written on parchment [ 162 ]. From the eighteenth century to the late nineteenth century, the term "preservative" was commonly used by naturalists to describe tanning agents that preserved hides by preventing degradation by insects and microbes, thus producing antiseptic substances with preservative properties [ 163 ].

Today, various methods of skinning and preserving vertebrate skins have evolved, with taxidermy playing an important role [ 164 ]. The primary goal of tanning is to preserve the skin and prevent its deterioration after removal. This is achieved by reducing the water content and maintaining sufficiently stable collagen fibers using chemical compounds [ 165 , 166 ]. Without this process, microbial communities would break down the skin, leading to decomposition, bad odors, loss of stiffness, and deterioration of the hide [ 165 , 166 ].

Traditionally, the simplest way to prevent deterioration was through dehydration, achieved by ventilation, sun drying, or saline solutions. This was followed by a series of chemical and physical processes, including the removal of hide, cartilage, and fat. During this process, proteins were hydrolyzed before the addition of preservatives, which were applied in various forms such as powders, soaps, pastes, liquid infusions, and baths. These preservatives were primarily salts, minerals such as alum, and chromium, known for their oxidizing properties [ 167 , 168 ]. Plant materials were also selected for their astringent properties, strong odors, and high concentrations of tannins [ 167 , 169 ]. The term "tannins" is derived from the Latin word tannum , meaning "crushed oak bark" [ 170 ]. While tannins are best known for roasted powdered oak bark, other species, such as those from the genera Acacia , Caesalpinea , and Lysiloma of the Fabaceae family, are also used [ 171 , 172 ].

Ethnobotanical studies have extensively documented the plant materials used to preserve leather. These studies have revealed various recipes, including mixtures of herbs (rosemary, thyme, laurel, bay, mint), peels (orange, lemon), and seeds (cumin, anise, cinnamon, pepper). In recent years, the use of plants with antimicrobial properties, such as Moringa oleifera and Persicaria hydropiper , has been effective in tanning goat hides, reducing salt and water contamination [ 173 , 174 ]. Traditional leather tanning practices are primarily passed down through oral and practical communication, resulting in gaps in the documentation of techniques used for different types of animal hides and the most common contaminants for each [ 170 ]. Some methods may have been lost due to a lack of recording, preservation, or publication. In addition, each producer often develops unique techniques that are constantly being innovated. It is important to recognize that most of these biotechnological applications are the result of ancient trial and error, and they should be acknowledged as part of historical development [ 171 , 174 ].

Soil: the managed microbial microcosm at our feet

Soil is one of our most precious resources on Earth. Down on the ground, constellations of microbes are responsible for imparting specific soil properties, and various researchers have focused their efforts on understanding and characterizing the “Earth’s dark matter”. Soil is one of the most complex and challenging environments for microbiologists because it contains the greatest microbial diversity on the planet, many of these microbes remain uncharacterized and represent a vast unexplored reservoir of genetic and metabolic diversity [ 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 ].

Soil plays a fundamental role in global ecology and agriculture. Several studies have shown that traditional soil management and crop selection promote a diverse soil microbial community due to crop heterogeneity [ 179 ]. To illustrate this idea the traditional farming system used in Mesoamerica, known as milpa, is an interesting example of soil microbial management [ 180 , 181 , 182 ]. The milpa system is characterized by the cultivation of several crops together in one plot, mainly maize, beans, and squash, thus promoting a symbiotic relationship, where beans provide nitrogen fixation due to an increasing number of active nodules per plant [ 183 ]. However, it is important to keep in mind that the composition of milpa system varies throughout Mesoamerica, so the number of microbial nodules varies depending on the plant species and varieties, but especially on the beans that are introduced into the milpa . Several ethnographic and microbiological studies have highlighted that different communities use practices such as the addition of local vegetation, and the promotion of weedy species, including medicinal plants or fruit trees, and microbiological studies have recorded that these practices promote greater genetic microbial diversity in the milpa soil than in wild sites or monocultures [ 184 ].

Ethnopedology: soil knowledge by local people

Ethnopedology encompasses the soil and knowledge systems of rural populations, from the most traditional to the most modern communities [ 31 , 185 , 186 ]. Several studies within this framework have emphasized that indigenous communities classify soil attributes based on characteristics such as vegetation, color, texture, and other properties. Few studies have emphasized how different indigenous groups carried out a detailed characterization of soils, pointing out that they used these characteristics and practices for soil conservation, and to ensure the minimum loss of quality, fertility and other attributes [ 31 , 185 , 187 ]. Ethnopedology was proposed by Barrera-Bassols in 1983 [ 31 , 185 ] as the science responsible for the study of the indigenous perception of the properties and processes of the soil, its nomenclature and taxonomy, its relationship with other ecological factors and phenomena, as well as its management in agriculture and its use in other productive activities [ 31 , 185 ]. Ethnopedology emphasizes that indigenous classifications are based on knowledge accumulated over generations and are not only methodological but also based on theoretical knowledge constructed in a manner similar to that of formal science [ 31 , 187 , 188 ]. This knowledge is an essential resource for designing management strategies [ 189 , 190 ]. Indigenous groups such as the Nahuas and Zoque of different municipalities in Veracruz, Mexico, identify soils of good quality for agriculture and pottery production but also soil used for geophagy. This type of soil is known as chogosta or xogos tall which is a “fermented” (bubbling) white soil used by the Nahuas to cure diseases related to the digestive system and will be addressed in the following section [ 190 ]. These types of soils have also been described in the detoxification of tubers in the Andean region [ 191 ].

In contrast, the modernization of agriculture has introduced external inputs such as industrialized fertilizers. Although the use of these inputs negatively affects soil microbial diversity [ 192 , 193 , 194 ], they are widely used by both small producers and large industries. In addition, a variety of hazardous pesticides (pure substances or chemical mixtures) are used by farmers in agricultural fields to control undesirable microbes during food production, harvest, and storage. These chemicals not only threaten crop fertility and productivity but also directly or indirectly affect human health [ 195 ]; most critically, they alter microbial diversity at multiple scales and systems.

Traditional management of agricultural and environmental systems is rooted in vast amounts of knowledge and beliefs, passed down through oral tradition and first-hand observation. Local knowledge about soil, health, and food is essential for decision-making in agriculture and natural resource management [ 196 , 197 ]. For thousands of years, most societies have been predominantly agricultural, with daily interactions between people and the land [ 198 ]. Through this continuous interaction, farmers have developed an intimate understanding of the condition, distribution, use, and care of the soil, the ecosystems in which they operate, and the relationship between these elements and their culture [ 31 , 186 , 189 ]. Evaluating traditional and ecological practices from an ethnomicrobiological perspective can provide practical applications for addressing global challenges such as food security, climate change mitigation, water security, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem services [ 199 , 200 ]. It offers practical insights into decisions regarding the use of fertilizers and pesticides, as well as strategies to reduce reliance on external industrialized inputs that compromise microbial diversity, health, and economic well-being, ultimately striving for environmental, health, and biological integrity.

Composting is another important microbial management practice. It is a natural process that facilitates the decomposition and stabilization of organic matter in waste, allowing bacteria and fungi to transform organic materials by using carbon and nitrogen as energy sources, along with water and oxygen, to restore soil fertility [ 200 , 201 , 202 ]. A wide variety of composting practices and methods are used around the world, making it a crucial technology for recycling biodegradable waste into a useful product. Even without deliberate management, organic matter will naturally break down through microbial activity [ 84 ]. Composting systems vary from simple backyard piles and bins to highly sophisticated, computer-controlled, mechanized processes [ 203 ]. Depending on the composition of the waste, it may be composted directly or homogenized before undergoing secondary treatment. Producers can also choose between aerobic or anaerobic composting to achieve specific characteristics in the final humic substances for the soil.

While composting is primarily a wild fermentation process, inoculants are sometimes added to improve or guide the results, presumably to enhance the production of various enzymes and thereby accelerate waste decomposition [ 201 , 203 , 204 ]. The primary goal of composting is to raise the temperature to eliminate pathogens and make the resulting compost safer. The composting process involves a microbial succession: mesophilic bacteria and fungi first break down simple compounds such as sugars and amino acids, raising the temperature rapidly; then thermophiles break down more complex organic matter, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. During this phase, the organic carbon content decreases due to the metabolic activities of thermotolerant microbes. Finally, the cooling phase is characterized by reduced microbial activity and a decrease in temperature [ 201 , 202 , 203 , 204 , 205 ].

An ethnomicrobiological perspective could significantly contribute to the documentation of practices, microbial groups, and their functional roles in the remediation and degradation of chemical pesticides. This perspective could also enhance healthy production systems, it can improve the sustainability of agricultural systems and help to conserve these often-overlooked resources. For example, during the COVID-19 public health emergency, producers of the Mexican fermented beverage pulque (made from fermented agave sap) began preparing soil fertilizers by composting dead agaves and organic matter, using pulque as a starter due to its rich yeast communities, which produced a bokashi-like fertilizer, an adaptation to the reduced demand for pulque during the public health emergency crisis. Studies have shown that this compost is rich in carbon and nitrogen content [ 206 , 207 ], and producers have observed improvements in soil quality and their crops.

Clay-eaters: geophagy links healthy soils with human health

In a previous section, we discussed soil management and classification, highlighting practices such as geophagy that play an important role in human health in various communities around the world. Geophagy, the practice of eating soil or soil-like substances, is practiced for cultural, nutritional, or medicinal reasons, and is particularly common among pregnant women [ 191 , 208 , 209 ]. Despite its prevalence, geophagy is a complex phenomenon that reflects the intricate microbial-human interaction. It is nearly universal, transcultural, and multicausal, with roots in spiritual and religious beliefs, ceremonies, and nutritional needs. Some researchers suggest that geophagy is an adaptive behavior, either to alleviate nutrient deficiencies or to protect against ingested pathogens and toxins [ 209 , 210 ]. Others argue that it is non-adaptive and occurs either to relieve hunger or as a side effect of nutrient deficiency [ 211 ]. Human geophagy is primarily explained as a protective measure against dietary chemicals, parasites, and pathogens. The benefits or harms of soil ingestion in humans are still debated, and little is known about the criteria consumers use to select soil for ingestion.

Among the beneficial aspects of clay consumption is the use of kaolin (a type of clay) in the treatment of diarrhea, gastritis, and colitis. It also allows the maintenance of normal intestinal flora with the help of commensal microorganisms found in the soil [ 212 ]. Kaolin is mainly consumed by women, during pregnancy, as a dietary supplement [ 213 , 214 , 215 ]. Beneficial microorganisms such as nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium spp. are associated with these clays and may provide health benefits [ 216 , 217 ]. Studies have reported that clay minerals could serve as inexpensive, highly effective antimicrobials for fighting various human bacterial infections, including those caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans , for which there are no effective antibiotics and mostly because some clays or soils contain specific components that act as valuable oral and topical antimicrobials and toxin adsorbents [ 218 , 219 ].

Clay consumption can also be harmful due to its microbiological underpinnings, such as the ingestion of parasitic worm eggs ( Ascaris lumbricoides , Trichuris trichiura ), leading to significant health consequences. In addition, highly toxic bacteria like Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium tetani , and Clostridium botulinum , are the causative agents of gas gangrene, tetanus, and botulism, respectively [ 220 ]. Other bacterial groups identified in these soils include Pseudomonas, Mucor , and Aspergillus spp. [ 215 ]. Also, microbial groups such as Yersinia enterocolitica , Escherichia coli , Streptococcus faecalis , Helicobacter pylori , and Mycobacteria , have been implicated in the etiology of conditions like Crohn’s disease and leaky gut syndrome, which are characterized by severe, chronic inflammation of the intestinal wall [ 216 , 217 ].

This practice is widespread around the world and has been reported to have economic significance in some places due to the income it generates [ 216 , 221 ]. Today, there is even a market for geophagy materials as treatments [ 222 ]. However, little is known about how clays are produced, managed, and selected. Ethnomicrobiology could address these concerns by conducting continuous monitoring and developing practices to manage these clays, especially given their frequent consumption.

Microbial–human interaction in traditional medicine and health systems

Modern life has overcome significant health challenges, but it has also introduced new ones. While modern medicine has provided us with antibiotics and hygiene practices that have saved countless lives, it has also disrupted the delicate balance between our bodies as hosts and their microbial inhabitants [ 223 , 224 , 225 ]. In recent years, the critical role of the gut-brain axis in maintaining homeostasis has been increasingly recognized, with the microbiota identified as key regulators of gut-brain function [ 226 , 227 , 228 ]. This axis is gaining traction in research areas investigating the biological and physiological underpinnings of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders, age-related declines in microbial diversity, neurodegenerative diseases, and social behaviors, as well as facilitating communication across various animal species, including humans [ 229 , 230 , 231 ]. The microbiota and brain communicate through multiple pathways, including the immune system, tryptophan metabolism, the vagus nerve, and the enteric nervous system, with microbial metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids, branched-chain amino acids, and peptidoglycans playing an important role [ 227 ]. Numerous factors can influence the composition of the microbiota early in life, including infection, mode of birth delivery, stress, antibiotic use, type of diet, environmental stressors, and host genetics, with microbial diversity decreasing with age [ 228 , 229 , 230 ].

Over 100 years ago, Metchnikoff introduced the concept that lactic acid bacteria ( LAB ) could be beneficial to human health [ 231 , 232 ]. In his book, The Prolongation of Life , he emphasized the importance of consuming large amounts of these beneficial bacteria. He suggested that modifying the gut microflora with probiotics (beneficial bacteria that can replace harmful microbes) could confer numerous health benefits to the host. Probiotics are described by the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) as live microorganisms that should provide a measurable physiological benefit [ 233 ]. Probiotics are typically consumed as part of fermented foods, sometimes with specially added active live cultures, such as in yogurt and soy, or as dietary supplements. However, traditional fermented foods and beverages are also recognized as an important source of these beneficial groups [ 232 , 234 , 235 , 236 , 237 ].

The use of traditional medicines and religious ceremonies in health-related matters among different cultural groups is primarily carried out by traditional healers in indigenous communities and does not necessarily compete with Western medical services [ 238 , 239 , 240 ]. Fermented products are also used medicinally in various regions to treat gastrointestinal problems. For example, kefir was proposed as a treatment for melancholia in the early 1990s [ 241 ]. Nevertheless, traditional healers such as curanderas or curanderos play a crucial role in promoting health therapies in several rural communities in Latin America. Many remedies are plant-based, and many plants produce metabolites that exhibit antimicrobial activity against bacteria and yeasts [ 242 , 243 , 244 ]. For example, species such as Piper regnellii have shown good activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis , moderate activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and weak activity against Escherichia coli [ 245 , 246 , 247 ]. Punica granatum showed good activity against S. aureus [ 248 ]. Eugenia uniflora showed moderate activity against both S. aureus and E. coli [ 249 ]. Psidium guajava , Tanacetum vulgare , Arctium lappa , Mikania glomerata , Sambucus canadensis , Plantago major , and Erythrina speciosa have shown varying degrees of antibacterial activity [ 250 , 251 , 252 ]. These plants are commonly used in herbal medicine across different regions of the world to address gastrointestinal health issues [ 253 , 254 ]. In this context, there is a deep-rooted knowledge surrounding the use of plant species that produce metabolites affecting the microbial communities that are part of the human microbiota, positioning traditional healers as effective microbial managers.

In the ontologies of Amerindian, Circumpolar, and Southeast Asian peoples, hallucinations or visions are not dismissed as mere delusions or symbolic constructs. Instead, they are recognized as means of perceptual access to physical reality [ 255 , 256 ]. For example, shamans of lowland South America claim the ability to diagnose and treat infectious diseases and assess the status of wildlife resources through interactions with pathogens perceived during visions. This phenomenon has often been attributed to neural origins, presumably revealing the underlying workings of the mind. However, Giraldo Herrera [ 255 , 256 , 257 ] adds a postulate that may help to understand this phenomenon. He suggests that entoptic microscopy , the perception of one’s retinal structures, blood cells, microscopic particles, and occasionally microbes flowing through retinal capillaries may play a key role. In this sense, the shamanic visions may serve as a subjective means of engaging with microbes through these entoptic visions.

To our knowledge, few studies have investigated indigenous peoples’ perceptions of microbes. This represents a potential area of study from an ethnomicrobiological perspective, aiming to understand how people classify microbial communities within the framework of folk biology, for what we might call an invisible world. It is also crucial to emphasize that ethnomicrobiology does not seek to validate all these practices, but rather to recognize the relevance of the knowledge and practices carried out by curanderos or shamans, rooted in the beliefs of different cultures in different times and places. Ethnomicrobiology can contribute to understanding how human and microbial ecologies shape each other, and how humans and microbes interact and are connected through food, identity, health, and ecological, evolutionary, and political relationships. From this perspective, it is possible to reimagine humans not as isolated entities like Homo sapiens , but rather as dynamic ecosystems, as holobionts [ 26 , 258 ].

The dawn of evolutionary Ethnomicrobiology: finding evolutionary patterns in human-microbial interactions

Ethnobiological research has greatly enhanced our understanding of the evolutionary processes that have unfolded over hundreds or thousands of years between humans and plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms, and the ecosystems they inhabit and manage. These human-nature interactions have had and continue to have profound evolutionary consequences for the organisms involved, for humans themselves, for their cultures and societies, and for the ecosystems and landscapes of the territories they occupy [ 259 ].

To explore these evolutionary perspectives, ethnobiology integrates insights from biological and ecological sciences, as well as social, economic, and anthropological disciplines. Ethnomicrobiology, a subfield of ethnobiology, is no exception [ 260 ]. The evolution of organisms that interact with humans is often guided by human intentions, creativity, and goals; a process commonly referred to as domestication [ 261 ]. However, Darwin recognized in the earliest studies of domestication that unconscious selection often plays an important role in domestication [ 262 ]. In the 1980s David Rindos constructed an inspiring theory establishing domestication as a coevolutionary process, and, importantly, introduced the notion of incidental domestication, whereby organisms involved in interactions evolve without a guided, intentional process [ 263 ]. More recently, Michael Purugganan has gone further, including in domestication mutualistic interactions between species, not necessarily involving humans. All these theoretical aspects are part of an important debate and guide important research agendas, which are of particular interest for constructing theoretical frameworks to analyze how these processes occur in the interactions between humans and invisible organisms [ 264 ]. The fundamental mechanisms that drive the evolution of organisms include the processes that generate genetic variation (such as mutations, genome changes, and recombination at the molecular and chromosomal levels) and the evolutionary forces that shape this variation in populations, including natural and artificial selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and breeding systems [ 265 , 266 ].

In domestication studies, it is crucial to document the existence of variation, as well as how people apply or determine human selection to this recognized variation. It is also important to examine how this variation is used, valued, and managed differently [ 259 , 260 , 261 ]. Adaptation under domestication is a key factor in the success of organisms to thrive and reproduce in human ecological, technological, and cultural contexts [ 267 ]. Domestication involves the continuous transformation of organisms in response to changes in culture, social organization, technology, landscapes, and ecosystems, all of which are highly dynamic processes [ 268 ]. Domesticated organisms are generally well-adapted to these contexts and human selection, while natural selection also plays a role in shaping these adaptations [ 266 ].

Ethnobiological studies with an evolutionary approach have been essential in understanding the principles of change involved in the interactions between humans and the biotic components of ecosystems and landscapes [ 267 ]. This approach provides a framework for studying the evolution of organisms and landscapes as shaped by human influence (Fig. 3 ). But what can ethnomicrobiology have to offer to biological and cultural evolution? What are the future perspectives for microbial selection, contexts of fermentation, and soil management? Do these human actions have evolutionary consequences for microorganisms? These are all questions that need to be explored and that ethnomicrobiology can help to answer.

Ethnomicrobiology, when viewed through a Darwinian evolutionary lens. Ethnomicrobiology can provide valuable insights into the processes of microbial management, selection, and domestication, particularly within microbial communities involved in intentional fermentations. Humans, represented by the black lines, act as key facilitators of microbial management and creators of new ecological niches. For example, the establishment of specialized facilities designed to collect microbial communities and promote fermentation (red lines). Similarly, fermentation vessels, represented by blue lines, provide environments where fermentation-related microbes are harbored, cultivated, or recruited to produce fermented beverages. Ethnomicrobiological studies also shed light on how the domestication of plants and animals reshapes their associated microbial communities, such as the microbiomes of domesticated plants (green lines). These ongoing human-microbial interactions contribute to niche construction over time and can even transform larger landscapes

To advance studies in evolutionary ethnobiology and cultural evolution within microbial communities, we strongly recommend that future research adopt a multispecies relational approach. This approach addresses the intricate relationships between species and how they co-create and influence each other [ 268 ]. These dynamics are vividly illustrated in agricultural and fermentation systems. For example, in the production of fermented beverages, the plant substrate provides sugars that fuel microbial fermentation. Before this, plants have already interacted with other species in their environment. Once fermentation occurs, the humans who manage the process interact with a final product that is the result of the collaboration and co-creation of a diverse community of beings [ 268 , 269 ].

In this context, food cultures and biodiversity are not merely processes where microbes, animals, and plants come together and flourish; rather, biodiversity becomes a web of relationships and interactions, each with its narrative [ 269 , 270 ]. Another important consideration in these studies is that mere observation and tactile interaction are insufficient to fully grasp the ever-changing nature of fermentation and agricultural processes, where microbial communities are never in a fixed state. It is essential to continuously sense and respond to the evolving multispecies possibilities within these transformations. Our senses should operate within a reciprocal multispecies context [ 271 ]. As much as sensing is crucial in these practices, our engagement with multispecies assemblages also shapes and enhances our sensory perceptions. Our cultural background also plays a key role in determining what is considered acceptable or unacceptable.

Microbial domestication in fermented products

While scientists have made significant progress in understanding the domestication of crops and livestock, the domestication of microorganisms remains less well understood. Nevertheless, it is an emerging field of study that is likely to force society to rethink assumptions about the evolution of human food systems. Following the so-called agricultural revolution, the domestication of bacteria, yeasts, and molds became critical to human food systems, enhancing the stability, quality, flavor, and texture of various products [ 272 ]. However, the practice of processing foods from wild relatives of cultivated plants likely predates agriculture. Today, various strains of yeast and bacteria associated with fermented products exhibit traits suggesting domestication. For instance, genomic and phenotypic studies suggest that wild species of Lactococcus likely originated in plant environments. Changes in these species occurred as they were propagated over generations in dairy environments, with human influence contributing to these new niche conditions [ 273 ]. Similarly, extensive research has been conducted on yeast strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a model organism closely associated with human activities, particularly in the production of alcoholic beverages [ 274 ] (In Fig. 3 the blue lines represent the creation of these new conditions).

Several strains of S. cerevisiae exhibit genetic and phenotypic differences from their closest known relative, S. paradoxus , leading to the hypothesis that S. cerevisiae is a domesticated species specialized for fermenting alcoholic beverages. Isolates of S. cerevisiae from other environments are thought to represent migrants from fermentation sites, although their exact migration routes remain unclear [ 275 , 276 , 277 ]. While genetic and environmental variation in S. cerevisiae strains related to bread, wine, and beer production has been characterized, little is known about the mechanisms and processes of human-driven selection [ 278 , 279 ]. Ethnomicrobiological research could help fill these gaps, as the management of microbial communities remains an underexplored area. Traditional knowledge about microbial management is often underestimated, but practitioners around the world engage in various practices that maintain microbial communities, especially in the production of culturally significant products [ 280 , 281 ]. These practices include small but critical details, such as preserving autochthonous microbial communities in containers [ 282 , 283 ], continuously feeding starter cultures with high-quality sugars [ 284 ], and storing batches for future fermentations [ 281 , 285 ].

While microbes lack the visual phenotypes that drive selection such as in plants and animals, selection can still occur through other traits. Specifically, sensory traits such as smell, taste, and texture. These sensory traits, often overlooked in traditional domestication studies, are particularly relevant to microbial communities. Traditional fermenter's preferences for specific sensory traits may act as a selection mechanism guiding the domestication of microbial communities at both population and community levels. Although research on the domestication of bacteria [ 286 , 287 ], yeasts [ 288 ], and molds [ 289 , 290 ] has advanced, human management of food production has created new ecological niches. The abundance of agricultural and non-agricultural food sources allows microbes to thrive in environments where their metabolic requirements are predictable. This consistency has led to rapid genomic specialization through processes such as pseudogenization, genome decay, interspecific hybridization, gene duplication, and horizontal gene transfer [ 289 ]. However, the specific practices and processes by which traditional managers influence microbial selection remain largely unclear.

Ethnomicrobiological studies can shed light on the history and evolution of microbial diversity and provide new perspectives on how selection occurs. A key question that these studies can address is whether microbial domestication is a conscious or unconscious process. Detailed analysis of practices and preferences through ethnographic studies could help us better understand the complexity of microbial selection. Furthermore, population genomics and phylogenomic approaches could be used to trace the origin and frequency of domestication events. In addition, metagenomic sequencing of ecological niches could identify microbial groups selected by human practices and reveal how changes in the fermentative environment can influence microbial evolution. These activities may promote preadaptations such as temperature tolerance, flavor molecule production, carbon metabolism, and spoilage control [ 288 , 289 ].

Further comparative studies of the chemical fingerprints of fermented products, such as aroma, flavor, and texture, using techniques like High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), combined with microbial community analyses, could enhance our understanding of the impact of sensory attributes on microbial domestication. In addition, assessing producer preferences during the fermentation process or in the final product could provide insights into how microbial selection occurs through sensory attributes. Finally, microbial studies that incorporate an ethnobiological perspective can provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying microbial selection and domestication.

Niche construction: the intertwined process of dwelling places for microbial assemblages

The Niche Construction Theory (NCT), part of the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis, presents additional evolutionary mechanisms beyond genetic inheritance. NCT is particularly appealing for studies of domestication and species closely associated with human cultures because it considers how ecological and cultural processes influence evolutionary dynamics and contribute to the stability of environmental conditions across generations [ 291 , 292 , 293 ]. These cultural processes are manifested through interactions with other species and ecosystems, as well as through strategies for environmental modification. Human actions and cultural developments also shape the future of populations and promote evolutionary change [ 294 , 295 , 296 ].

According to Odling-Smee [ 297 ], the evolutionary niche encompasses the selective pressures exerted on a population. The presence of human cultures has consistently modified numerous niches, with social and ecological consequences for both humans and other organisms. These evolutionary processes are not limited to changes in genetic fitness but are expressed through cultural technologies, behaviors, memory, and history, reflecting intergenerational human–environment relationships. The application of NCT to microorganisms is particularly relevant in the context of ethnomicrobiology. Microbes collectively shape their environment in profound ways through their metabolic products, influencing and altering their shared habitat, a process that can be understood through the lens of niche construction. For example, microbial niche construction may involve the production of biofilms, and the release of enzymes, toxins, or metabolites that alter the composition of the microbiome. Some of these traits can be considered extended phenotypes, where microbes actively modify their environment for their benefit and potentially for the benefit of others [ 298 ].

One of the most tangible examples of microbial niche construction in everyday life is within our food systems, particularly in the creation of fermented foods. Products such as cheese and alcohol are transformative processes, orchestrated by microbes that are often invisible to the naked eye, yet present everywhere: in the air, on insects, plants, houses, tools, and in every inch of soil [ 84 , 299 ]. In addition, humans have fostered and designed new environments for these microbes, building structures and landscapes that facilitate microbial growth. These organisms, in turn, create microenvironments that can later be perceived through the sights, tastes, and smells of our foodscapes [ 70 , 300 , 301 , 302 , 303 ].

Since the advent of cereal agriculture, new niches have become available for microbial communities, allowing them to utilize these novel substrates. Humans have also developed tools, containers, and specialized facilities essential to the production of fermented products, all of which serve as critical sites for microbial assembly and activity [ 70 , 302 , 303 ]. Practices such as cleaning equipment and containers play a key role in maintaining specific microbial communities within fermentative environments [ 22 , 70 , 281 , 302 , 303 ] (in Fig. 3 , this idea is represented by the red lines, where specific facilities for microbial dommus are established).

Numerous studies have demonstrated the contribution of NCT to human nutrition, particularly in understanding how food storage and processing evolved during the Neolithic period. These developments, along with advances in skills, knowledge, and technology, have increased human survival rates [ 304 ]. Heritable cultural practices (such as fermentation) have conferred significant evolutionary advantages, reinforcing the role of cultural inheritance in human evolution [ 305 ].

In this way, organisms actively shape their environment through their life activities [ 306 ]. This environmental modification, known as ecosystem engineering, exerts selective pressure not only on the species itself but also on neighboring species, a process referred to as niche construction [ 307 ]. Within the ethnomicrobiological framework, future research could explore how the construction of microenvironments alters the broader macroenvironment, and vice versa. For example, microorganisms in fermented products are excellent niche builders, but they also exist in symbiosis with humans, who create favorable living conditions for them by providing containers and facilities that support their growth.

Microbial evolution associated with domesticated crops

Macroorganisms are colonized by microbial communities that perform crucial biological and ecological functions for their hosts. The composition of these microbial communities is often under host control [ 308 ]. In domesticated organisms, such as crop plants, both human and natural selection exerted by the agricultural ecosystem play a role [ 309 , 310 ]. While plant domestication has long been recognized to promote changes in genetic diversity, plant physiology, and morphology, the subsequent effects on associated microbiome communities have been less extensively studied. Domestication can influence these microbial communities, resulting in what has been described as “an ecosystem on a leash” [ 311 , 312 , 313 ]. For example, domesticated plant genotypes have been shown to modulate soil microbiota by selecting specific microbial communities in the rhizosphere compared to their wild and semi-domesticated counterparts [ 314 , 316 ] (this idea is represented in green in Figure 3 ).

Studies on different Phaseolus species illustrate these differences and document shifts in microbial communities from wild to domesticated genotypes [ 317 , 318 ]. These studies have generally observed changes in the abundance of specific microbial groups, such as increased Actinobacteria in domesticated plants, and higher levels of Proteobacteria , Acidobacteria , and Firmicutes in wild genotypes. Furthermore, the complexity of microbial community networks in the rhizosphere tends to decrease from wild to domesticated genotypes, indicating a reduction in the robustness and connectivity of these networks [ 318 ].

This knowledge of plant domestication is often intertwined with soil management practices. For instance, Barrera-Bassols and Zinck [ 31 , 185 ], in their global survey of ethnopedology, reported that local soil knowledge often arises in regions with high levels of plant and animal domestication, such as China, India, Mexico, and Egypt. Therefore, soil management and plant domestication may form a complementary link between the kosmos (beliefs, cosmovisions), corpus (environmental knowledge), and praxis (practices) of local land users and farmers [ 319 , 320 ]. Ethnomicrobiology, with its inherent transdisciplinary approach, could serve as an integrative scientific field to help us understand how these biocultural approaches and practices in soil management and plant domestication are interrelated. This understanding could inform the development of sustainable practices for soil management and agriculture in the face of challenging environmental conditions.

Ethnomicrobiology could also provide theoretical perspectives on microbial domestication within the context of domesticated plants and other organisms. For example, plants may adapt to their environment by hosting beneficial bacteria that provide selective advantages under stressful conditions. Endophytes, a class of beneficial bacteria that live inside plants, can enhance plant nitrogen use efficiency, a critical factor for plant growth, especially in cereal crops [ 321 ]. A striking example is the geographically isolated maize landrace known as “Olotón,” grown in the Sierra Mixe region of Oaxaca, Mexico. This maize utilizes atmospheric nitrogen by developing an extensive network of mucilage-secreting aerial roots that harbor diazotrophic (N2-fixing) microbiota capable of incorporating atmospheric nitrogen [ 322 ]. A study by Dumingan [ 323 ] investigated whether this microbiome trait is shared among closely related maize varieties in the region. The results showed the presence of multiple root endophyte species in each maize relative, with these strains being vertically transmitted to new generations, possibly through seed. However, the selective breeding of maize under high-nitrogen conditions to create modern varieties may have caused the plant to lose these beneficial bacteria that allowed wild maize ancestors to thrive in low-nitrogen soils. These microbial communities hold significant potential for reducing the reliance on nitrogen fertilizers. However, this potential raises critical questions regarding the commercialization of biotechnological applications by large industries versus the ethical recognition of these microbes as a shared common good within local agrobiodiversity.

Ethnomicrobiology and critical social perspectives

Ethnobiology actively challenges colonialism, racism, and social injustice by promoting the decolonization of institutional structures, research projects, and even ethnobiologists themselves [ 5 ]. Ethnomicrobiology aims to establish itself as a field focused on the interactions between humans and microorganisms. Within this approach, it is crucial to recognize that microorganisms have both a future and a past that are inextricably linked to human involvement in ecological, political, and economic networks [ 324 ]. Over the past half-century, humans have profoundly transformed the world, particularly through economic growth models, industrialization, population growth, increased resource consumption, energy use, and the resulting pollution, a phenomenon collectively referred to as the Great Acceleration [ 325 , 326 , 327 ]. In the face of these changes, a critical question arises: What are the impacts of the Anthropocene on the microbial communities associated with human existence? Scientists have begun to address this question, highlighting the problematic nature of human microbiomes and the growing concern about microbial resistance [ 328 ]. In the context of Anthropocene studies, non-human entities, including microbes, are increasingly recognized as social actors with significant implications for economics, bioethics, and natural resource management. This recognition leads to new dialogues and questions: How should we conceptualize the relationships between microorganisms and humans in the Anthropocene? What are the conditions and challenges for these relationships?

A key challenge for ethnomicrobiological studies in the Anthropocene is to rethink the dynamic relationships that microorganisms establish with humans. This requires reconfiguring the dominant narrative that often relegates microorganisms to the role of mere disease vectors, ignoring their significance within evolutionary and co-evolutionary frameworks [ 329 ]. Recognizing microorganisms as active agents in critical societal developments allows us to see them as entities that evolve alongside humans, historically shaping and being shaped by human existence [ 330 ]. In the following sections, we propose several key issues that ethnomicrobiology from a social perspective should address.

Biopiracy in microbial communities

Microorganisms play a critical role in biological diversity and are recognized, managed, and used for various purposes in different cultures. Since 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has promoted the sustainable use of resources and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources [ 331 ]. To date, 196 countries have ratified the Convention, which covers the full spectrum of biological diversity, including ecosystems, species, and genetic variation. However, significant uncertainties remain regarding its implementation at the microbial level, mainly due to the vast, largely unexplored diversity of microbial species, their distribution, environmental stability, and complex interactions with other species, including humans [ 332 ].

The Nagoya Protocol aims to ensure the legal use of genetic resources, facilitate benefit-sharing, and impose penalties for violations [ 333 ]. Despite these goals, microbial resources have been largely overlooked, even though the relationship between microbial communities and human cultures is as old as the domestication of plants and animals [ 35 , 272 ]. A major challenge is the characterization and definition of microbial species, especially among diverse bacterial groups. Microbiologists view bacteria as existing on a continuum of varieties, with species classification traditionally based on DNA reassociation, where strains with at least 70% reassociation are considered to belong to the same species [ 334 ]. In addition, newer culture-independent techniques, such as next-generation sequencing, propose a paradigm shift, suggesting species assignment based on 95% genomic identity for bacterial groups [ 276 ]. This complexity in bacterial species identification was not fully addressed in the Nagoya Protocol, making it a challenging issue.

The Protocol must evolve in order to properly value genetic resources and traditional knowledge, especially from the most biodiverse regions. The Protocol must ensure equitable benefit-sharing with communities that have long managed and generated this knowledge, even when it is not immediately apparent [ 332 ]. This is especially relevant for microbial communities associated with human activities, such as the production of fermented products, which involves deliberate management actions rooted in traditional ecological knowledge, including the selection of specific microbial communities or even particular strains [ 272 , 289 ].

As noted above, humans actively select and cultivate microbial communities to achieve desired product characteristics. As a result, bacterial and yeast communities can develop unique traits due to selective human management. These human-associated microbial groups are part of evolutionary and domestication processes that are shared and promoted by humans, such as traditional fermentation managers and farmers who maintain these microbial and macroecosystems [ 281 ]. While bacterial communities may exhibit similarities due to the broad definition of species, yeast communities are characterized by distinctive traits and genomic regions selected and associated with these human-managed environments [ 276 , 288 , 335 , 336 ].

The incentives provided by the Nagoya Protocol and the Convention on Biological Diversity for the protection and sustainable use of biodiversity by recognizing the value of genetic resources and associated ecological knowledge should be applied with careful attention to biopiracy concerns, particularly with respect to managed microbial communities such as in the case of Oloton maize [ 337 , 338 ]. Microbial cultures are more easily moved, appropriated, and commodified for private profit than plants or vertebrates, making the risk of microbial piracy very real. According to Bravo [ 339 ], the potential profitability of a product increases by 400% when the biological (genetic) resource is linked to local knowledge, leading to bioprospecting projects and biopiracy affecting living organisms and local communities throughout Latin America [ 340 ]. Gaps in the establishment and the application of national and international laws regarding microorganisms make them easy targets for patenting, along with their genetic material and biophysical activity, to become the subject of patents by private companies, with significant conservation impacts.

Over the past decade, corporations have increasingly gained control over the Earth's biodiversity and Indigenous knowledge through new property rights, often leading to monopolization rather than fostering genuine innovation [ 340 ]. Patents on living resources and indigenous knowledge have effectively privatized the biological and intellectual commons. Life forms are often redefined as “products” or “machines”, reduced to their genetic components or the outputs derived from such “machines”. However, microorganisms must be recognized in regulations as living organisms, whose metabolism, presence, and development are vital to humans and play an integral role in human perception, use, and interactions [ 341 ]. It is also critical to consider the immense value of microbial communities and the importance of responsible management of microbial resources.

Culture collections are invaluable resources for the sustainable use and conservation of microbial diversity. Several countries have also invested in gene banking their microbial cultures, particularly those used in the fermentation of traditional foods and beverages. Advances in biotechnology have further enhanced the importance of these collections, some of which have been recognized by the International Depositary Authority (IDA) for the deposit of patent cultures. Notably, the Budapest Treaty, adopted in 1977, addresses a key issue in the international patent process: inventions involving microorganisms. All contracting states are required to recognize microorganisms deposited with an IDA as part of the patent disclosure procedure [ 343 , 344 ]. However, as mentioned above, parts of this legislation remain ambiguous. Consequently, much work remains to be done to address the microbiological agenda, where ethnomicrobiological research can provide valuable insights and advocate for the development of local and international policies to address pressing biopolitical concerns.

Given the significant economic impact of such patents, ethnomicrobiologists must address these concerns in future research agendas. Responsible management of microbial communities is essential, not only to prevent monopolization, but also to ensure equitable distribution of the benefits derived from these valuable resources. Biopiracy and the patenting of microorganisms and their metabolic products pose a serious threat to local populations who have the knowledge and skills to cultivate, harvest, manage, and maintain microbial communities. These practices not only threaten the livelihoods of these communities but also threaten the biodiversity of species that have co-evolved with traditional fermenters and farmers. To date, local and traditional knowledge can be exploited and patented, fueling a new wave of biopiracy.

While some progress has been made in recognizing microorganisms as part of nature, a critical gap remains in recognizing them as part of biocultural landscapes and the intangible heritage of indigenous farmers, brewers, tanners, cheesemakers, and fermenters. Currently, there is a notable lack of policies that affirm the rights of traditional custodians of microbial cultures or the rights of the microorganisms themselves. This largely unaddressed ethical and legal issue requires urgent attention from policymakers, especially considering the rapid expansion of commercially motivated bioprospecting projects.

Landscapes of fermentation and social justice: from micro to macro social change

According to the World Economic Forum (WEF), humanity’s current production systems will not be able to meet the future demand for protein or achieve the eradication of hunger, key objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals . This is a complex and controversial issue that is beyond the scope of this reflection. However, fermentation has emerged as a promising frontier for alternative protein production [ 342 , 345 ]. In recent years, several innovative initiatives have explored new protein sources [ 345 , 346 , 347 ]. Techniques such as precision fermentation, which uses engineered microbes to produce large quantities of proteins typically found in animal products without the need to breed, feed, or slaughter animals, are gaining traction [ 347 ]. The core idea is to remove animals from the production system, thereby reducing the risk of contamination, eliminating the need for antibiotics, and reducing the threat of cross-species disease transmission [ 347 ].

While advances in fermentation technologies depend on adequate funding and expertise, it is critical to recognize that these technologies remain out of reach for many communities. The World Economic Forum (WEF) emphasizes that fermentation holds the potential to fundamentally transform the way the world eats, but significant investment is still required to realize this potential. While companies have developed promising fermentation technologies, these innovations are still in their early stages, underfunded, and primarily concentrated in countries with established economies. In addition, most fermentation facilities are designed for industries other than alternative protein production [ 348 ]. In contrast, traditional fermentation has long been a practical, localized activity that provides essential nutrients, including proteins, probiotics, prebiotics, and other vital components, making it a cornerstone of local diets worldwide. These traditional practices often play a key role in helping communities protect their environments.

Ethnomicrobiology can also address important social justice issues related to fermented products. Many fermented beverages today are rooted in colonial commodities with complex histories and uncertain futures. This phenomenon is vividly illustrated, for example, by the tequila industry and the production of mezcal and other distillates in Mexico [ 78 ]. Tequila, a distilled beverage, is legally required to be made from a single highly homogeneous clone of Agave tequilana Weber variety azul. In 2006, UNESCO declared the blue agave fields and distilleries to be part of the Cultural Heritage of Humanity in the category of Cultural Landscapes [ 349 ]. However, A. tequilana monocultures degrade local agroecosystems [ 350 ] and differ significantly from the more sustainable biocultural landscapes where other distilled beverages such as the traditional mezcales produced in Mexico. This loss of genetic diversity in both plants and microbial cultures [ 351 , 352 ], as well as vulnerability to pests and diseases, intensive agrochemical use, soil erosion, water contamination, and damage to the health of the local population, are direct consequences of meeting the international demand for tequila [ 353 , 354 , 355 ]. Many have called for UNESCO to reconsider its designation because the tequila landscape does not meet the standards of other recognized cultural landscapes.

Historically, landscapes have been transformed to produce alcohol as a commodity [367], often resulting in significant homogenization, with only a few species remaining. For example, more than 1500 grape varieties have been recorded, many of which are Indigenous, ancient landraces adapted to their environment, but modern vineyards are now dominated by the ubiquitous Cabernet Sauvignon grape [ 299 , 300 ]. This homogenization extends beyond the landscape to the microbial level, where also microbes become less diverse. In contrast, the microbial richness of traditional cheeses, wild wines, or spirits like mezcal manifests in a sensory explosion of flavors, textures, and aromas that reflect the complex microbial metabolism at work [ 78 ].

Processes such as fermentation offer valuable insights into how micro-scale activities affect macro-scale environments, such as landscapes. These landscapes are not simply geographic or geological spaces but are complex constructions shaped by interactions between biological (including microbial), sociological, geographic, and economic factors. Ethnomicrobiology, as a science committed to both social and environmental justice, can propose strategies to support fermenting producers resist the homogenization of food, and promote food sovereignty. It calls for actions that incorporate diverse perspectives, values, and behaviors, to ensure a more just and sustainable future for fermented food systems.

Conclusions

Ethnomicrobiology provides a unique scientific space that acknowledges the symbiotic relationships between microorganisms and humans and emphasizes the cultural specificity of these interactions. The emerging approach provides a platform for exploring the diversity of life forms as analyzed from the biological sciences and microbiology. While modern science first explored the microbial world in the seventeenth century, many human communities had long recognized the presence of these microorganisms through external indicators, identifying them by their properties, attributes, and outcomes under different cultural contexts.

Ethnomicrobiology compels us to see microorganisms as cultural, biopolitical, economic, ecological, evolutionary, and social agents, deeply intertwined with human existence. By recognizing humans as part of multi-species communities ( holobionts composed of interacting genomes) this approach promotes a broader evolutionary perspective on microbial evolution, including that associated with management that can be considered domestication. It also challenges long-held assumptions about the diversity of ways humans coexist with microbes in different cultural contexts. It highlights the importance of treating these microorganisms as natural resources, protected by the same international and national laws that protect plants and animals. Microbes are an integral part of agrobiodiversity, and their value goes beyond mere commodification. However, indigenous and local knowledge of microbial management is often undervalued.

Because microbial management plays a critical role in supporting healthy diets and sustainable agroecosystems, ethnomicrobiologists need to establish clear short-, medium-, and long-term goals for maintaining and enhancing the systems in which microbial management occurs. In doing so, they can develop diagnostic and comparative studies to inform future applications and deepen our theoretical understanding of microbial-human interactions.

Despite the successes in applying traditional knowledge, the dominance of a single scientific paradigm (compounded by political and socioeconomic barriers) has often led to the marginalization of local microbiological expertise and its custodians. These issues have not only devalued local knowledge but also exacerbated the exclusion of these communities. It is for a conceptual, theoretical, and integrative phase in ethnomicrobiology that invites collaboration and the establishment of bridges between ethnobiologists, microbiologists, and other disciplines. This interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach will promote a deeper understanding of human-microbe interactions and protect them from biopiracy and other threats.

Ethnomicrobiology broadly calls for transdisciplinary collaborations and respect for the original caretakers and artisans who manage microbial cultures. It advocates the decolonization of scientific inquiry by affirming the intrinsic rights of microorganisms and honoring the sovereignty of the peoples who have historically managed them. It also advocates a shift from ethnocentric to biocentric perspectives, embracing what Darwin called “the entangled bank”—the complex web of relationships that contribute to the richness of human and non-human life, as well as the diversity of foods, beverages, fibers, medicines, and agroecosystems that shape our material culture.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Abbreviations

Lactic acid bacteria

Niche construction theory

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend our deepest gratitude to all the communities that have inspired our thinking about human-microbial interactions, especially those dedicated to producing fermented beverages. Special thanks to Anita Hernández, whose enthusiasm as the organizer of the Colonche Fest in Guanajuato inspired us to delve into this research. We are also grateful to the Barnet family in Hermosillo, Noe and Fernando Barragán, traditional fermenters in Puebla, Don Bibiano in the Estado de México, and Verónica Barriga and her family in Oaxaca, for sharing their invaluable knowledge and traditions. Also, to our friends and sotol producers Salvador Derma and Lupe Lopez. A heartfelt thank you to Israel Ibarvo Ríos and Edgar Alan Martínez Molina for their unwavering motivation to conserve and promote these beverages. We are also indebted to Alejandra Cruz for the outstanding illustration, and to Humberto Peraza for his insights into microbial biopiracy. You play a crucial role in preserving fermented products and cultural diversity, and your contributions have been instrumental in shaping this work. We thank Leonaldo Betran for their valuable feedback on an early version of the manuscript. Finally, thanks to CONACHyT for providing financial support through the fellowship of the first author (CIOL), as well as PAPIIT-DGAPA, UNAM for financial support via project IN224023.

Financial support was received from CONAHCyT by Estancias posdoctorales por México for the main author.

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Alejandro Casas

Laboratorio de Botánica Sistemática, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador

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The Southwest Center, Desert Laboratory on Tumamoc Hill, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

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All authors contributed to this study. The main concept for the article was developed by César Iván Ojeda Linares, Gary Paul Nabhan, and Alejandro Casas. Material preparation and data collection were carried out by César Iván Ojeda Linares, Tania González, and Alejandro Casas. César Iván Ojeda Linares and Tania González wrote the initial draft of the manuscript, with all authors providing feedback, reviewing, and editing subsequent versions. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

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Ojeda-Linares, C., Casas, A., González-Rivadeneira, T. et al. The dawn of ethnomicrobiology: an interdisciplinary research field on interactions between humans and microorganisms. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 20 , 86 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-024-00725-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-024-00725-5

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FREE 10+ Descriptive Research Templates in PDF
Descriptive Research
FREE 10+ Descriptive Research Templates in PDF

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Descriptive Research and Application of Descriptive Research (Ex Post Facto Research)
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(PDF) Descriptive Research Designs
PDF | On May 20, 2019, Sohil Sharma published Descriptive Research Designs | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
PDF Descriptive analysis in education: A guide for researchers
Box 1. Descriptive Analysis Is a Critical Component of Research Box 2. Examples of Using Descriptive Analyses to Diagnose Need and Target Intervention on the Topic of "Summer Melt" Box 3. An Example of Using Descriptive Analysis to Evaluate Plausible Causes and Generate Hypotheses Box 4.
Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods
Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods. January 2020. Clinical nurse specialist CNS 34 (1):8-12. 34 (1):8-12. DOI: 10.1097/NUR.0000000000000493. Authors: Sandra L Siedlecki ...
Qualitative and descriptive © The Author(s) 2015
Qualitative research collects data qualitatively, and the method of analysis is also primarily qualitative. This often involves an inductive exploration of the data to identify recurring themes, patterns, or concepts and then describing and interpreting those categories. Of course, in qualitative research, the data collected qualitatively can ...
(PDF) Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis
PDF | On Feb 26, 2015, Hossein Nassaji published Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods
Author Affiliation: Senior Nurse Scientist and Clinical Nurse Specialist, Office of Nursing Research & Innovation, Nursing Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Ohio. The author reports no conflicts of interest. Correspondence: Sandra L. Siedlecki, PhD, RN, APRN-CNS, 3271 Stillwater Dr, Medina, OH 44256 ([email protected]).
Research Design: Descriptive Research
Changes in Body Image Experienced by Adolescents With Cancer. Experiences of Pregnant African American Adolescents: Meanings, Perception, Appraisal, and Coping. Book Reviews : Sweeney, M.A. and Olivieri, P. An Introduction to Nursing Research: Research, Measurement and Computers in Nursing.
Descriptive Research and Qualitative Research
Descriptive research is a study of status and is widely used in education, nutrition, epidemiology, and the behavioral sciences. Its value is based on the premise that problems can be solved and practices improved through observation, analysis, and description. The most common descriptive research method is the survey, which includes ...
PDF 1 Introducing Research Designs
research problems within specied boundaries and well-designed methods to collect and process information. Also, an important part of the research process is to disseminate the ndings to develop, rene, or falsify theories. We can differentiate between three types of research, namely . exploratory, descriptive, and . explanatory. research. Yet ...
PDF Essentials of Descriptive-Interpretive Qualitative Research: A Generic
Therefore, we talk about "generic" or "descriptive-interpretive" approaches to qualitative research that share in common an effort to describe, summarize, and classify what is present in the data, which always, as we explain in Chapter 4, involves a degree of interpretation.
Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis
Qualitative research collects data qualitatively, and the method of analysis is also primarily qualitative. This often involves an inductive exploration of the data to identify recurring themes, patterns, or concepts and then describing and interpreting those categories. Of course, in qualitative research, the data collected qualitatively can ...
Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods
Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods. Clin Nurse Spec. 2020 Jan/Feb;34 (1):8-12. doi: 10.1097/NUR.0000000000000493.
Characteristics of Qualitative Descriptive Studies: A Systematic Review
Qualitative description (QD) is a label used in qualitative research for studies which are descriptive in nature, particularly for examining health care and nursing-related phenomena (Polit & Beck, 2009, 2014).QD is a widely cited research tradition and has been identified as important and appropriate for research questions focused on discovering the who, what, and where of events or ...
Study designs: Part 2
INTRODUCTION. In our previous article in this series, [1] we introduced the concept of "study designs"- as "the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research question.". Study designs are primarily of two types - observational and interventional, with the former being ...
PDF Descriptive studies: what they can and cannot do
Descriptive studies have several important roles in medical research.They are often the first foray into a new disease or area of inquiry—the first scientific "toe in the water".1 They document the health of populations and often prompt more rigorous studies. Since descriptive studies are often reported,2 clinicians need to know their
Qualitative Descriptive Methods in Health Science Research
Describing the Qualitative Descriptive Approach. In two seminal articles, Sandelowski promotes the mainstream use of qualitative description (Sandelowski, 2000, 2010) as a well-developed but unacknowledged method which provides a "comprehensive summary of an event in the every day terms of those events" (Sandelowski, 2000, p. 336).Such studies are characterized by lower levels of ...
PDF VOLUME 13 ISSUE 2.2 2018
2.1 Research Design This study made use of the descriptive research method because it dealt with the analysis of indirectness markers in the written discourse of the subjects under study. Calderon (2006), defined descriptive research as a purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions,
Descriptive Analysis of Research Data
Descriptive statistics, such as means and percentages, describe data obtained from empirical observations and measurements, whereas inferen tial statistics are used to make infer ences or draw conclusions about a population, given the data were actu ally obtained for a sample. This article briefly discusses common descriptive data analysis ...
PDF © 2019 JETIR June 2019, Volume 6, Issue 6 Descriptive Research
JETIR1908597 Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (JETIR) www.jetir.org 863 Descriptive Research Manjunatha.N Library Assitant, SRI SIDDHATHA FIRST GRADE COLLEGE. Abstract:- Descriptive research can be explained as a statement of affairs as they are at present
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research methods. Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research, though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable.. Surveys. Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages ...
(PDF) Title : An Introduction on Descriptive Analysis; Its advantages
4. Commonly used tools in Descriptive Research The tools which are mostly used for Descriptive research in order to analyze and summarize large pile of data in to magnitudes are; Frequencies, mean, median, mode standard deviation, correlation, scatter plot, graphs, tables, charts, histograms and so forth (Jong et al.,2002).
(PDF) Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative
The book Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches by Creswell (2014) covers three approaches-qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. ... Professor Creswell is also one of the founding members of the Journal of Mixed Methods Research. He was a Fulbright scholar in South Africa in 2008 and Thailand in 2012 ...
Health sciences students' perspectives on metaverse and digital
Students' attitudes towards digital technologies affect their use of innovations in digital education. In the study, it was aimed to determine undergraduate health sciences students' views about the Metaverse and digital technology. This study was a cross-sectional descriptive study. In the study sample, 289 health sciences students who voluntarily agreed to participate in the research and ...
The dawn of ethnomicrobiology: an interdisciplinary research field on
Background Ethnobiologists commonly analyze local knowledge systems related to plants, animals, fungi, and ecosystems. However, microbes (bacteria, yeasts, molds, viruses, and other organisms), often considered invisible in their interactions with humans, are often neglected. Microorganisms were the earliest life forms on Earth, and humans have interacted with them throughout history. Over ...
Evaluating the Perceived Value of Holistic ...
Purpose: Specialty nursing certifications serve as a validation of nursing knowledge in specific areas. Holistic nursing emphasizes comprehensive patient care and incorporates complementary alternative modalities (CAM) into daily care. Despite its significance, limited research has evaluated the perceived value of holistic nursing certification among nurses.

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Qualitative Descriptive Methods in Health Science Research

Bronwynne Evans

Background:

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Describing the Qualitative Descriptive Approach

Designing a Qualitative Descriptive Study

Theoretical Framework

Data Collection

Data Analysis

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Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

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Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

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